Security Overview

Oracle Security Overview presents the basic concepts of data security in an Internet environment. It outlines fundamental data security requirements and explains the risks that threaten the integrity and privacy of your data. Several chapters introduce the rich array of technology that can contribute to system security. The book concludes with a survey of the Oracle features and products that implement these technologies.

Oracle® Security Overview 10g Release 1 (10.1) Part No. B10777-01 December 2003 Oracle Security Overview 10g Release 1 (10.1) Part No. B10777-01 Copyright © 2000, 2003 Oracle Corporation. All rights reserved. Primary Author: Rita Moran and Jeff Levinger The Programs (which include both the software and documentation) contain proprietary information of Oracle Corporation; they are provided under a license agreement containing restrictions on use and disclosure and are also protected by copyright, patent and other intellectual and industrial property laws. Reverse engineering, disassembly or decompilation of the Programs, except to the extent required to obtain interoperability with other independently created software or as speciﬁed by law, is prohibited. The information contained in this document is subject to change without notice. If you ﬁnd any problems in the documentation, please report them to us in writing. Oracle Corporation does not warrant that this document is error-free. 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Other names may be trademarks of their respective owners. Contents Send Us Your Comments ................................................................................................................. xiii Preface........................................................................................................................................................... xv Audience ................................................................................................................................................ xv Documentation Accessibility ............................................................................................................. xvi Organization......................................................................................................................................... xvi Related Documentation .................................................................................................................... xviii Conventions.......................................................................................................................................... xix Part I Security Challenges 1 Data Security Challenges Top Security Myths............................................................................................................................. 1-2 Understanding the Many Dimensions of System Security........................................................ 1-2 Fundamental Data Security Requirements.................................................................................... 1-4 Confidentiality .............................................................................................................................. 1-4 Privacy of Communications................................................................................................. 1-5 Secure Storage of Sensitive Data ......................................................................................... 1-5 Authenticated Users.............................................................................................................. 1-5 Granular Access Control ...................................................................................................... 1-5 Integrity.......................................................................................................................................... 1-6 Availability .................................................................................................................................... 1-6 Security Requirements in the Internet Environment .................................................................. 1-7 Promises and Problems of the Internet ..................................................................................... 1-7 iii Increased Data Access .................................................................................................................. 1-8 Much More Valuable Data .......................................................................................................... 1-9 Larger User Communities ......................................................................................................... 1-10 Scalability.............................................................................................................................. 1-10 Manageability....................................................................................................................... 1-10 Interoperability .................................................................................................................... 1-10 Hosted Systems and Exchanges ............................................................................................... 1-10 A World of Data Security Risks ..................................................................................................... 1-11 Data Tampering .......................................................................................................................... 1-11 Eavesdropping and Data Theft................................................................................................. 1-12 Falsifying User Identities........................................................................................................... 1-12 Password-Related Threats ......................................................................................................... 1-13 Unauthorized Access to Tables and Columns........................................................................ 1-13 Unauthorized Access to Data Rows......................................................................................... 1-13 Lack of Accountability ............................................................................................................... 1-14 Complex User Management Requirements............................................................................ 1-14 Multitier Systems................................................................................................................. 1-14 Scaling the Security Administration of Multiple Systems............................................. 1-14 A Matrix of Security Risks and Solutions.................................................................................... 1-15 The System Security Team .............................................................................................................. 1-17 Part II Technical Solutions to Security Risks 2 Protecting Data Within the Database Introduction to Database Security Concepts ................................................................................. 2-2 System and Object Privileges........................................................................................................... 2-2 System Privileges .......................................................................................................................... 2-2 Schema Object Privileges............................................................................................................. 2-2 Managing System and Object Privileges ....................................................................................... 2-3 Using Roles to Manage Privileges .............................................................................................. 2-4 Database Roles ....................................................................................................................... 2-4 Global Roles............................................................................................................................ 2-5 Enterprise Roles ..................................................................................................................... 2-5 Secure Application Roles...................................................................................................... 2-6 Using Stored Procedures to Manage Privileges ....................................................................... 2-6 iv Using Network Facilities to Manage Privileges ....................................................................... 2-7 Using Views to Manage Privileges ............................................................................................ 2-7 Row Level Security............................................................................................................................. 2-8 Complex and Dynamic Views .................................................................................................... 2-9 Application Query Rewrite: Virtual Private Database............................................................ 2-9 Label-Based Access Control ........................................................................................................ 2-9 Encrypting Data on the Server ....................................................................................................... 2-10 Selective Encryption of Stored Data ........................................................................................ 2-10 Industry Standard Encryption Algorithms............................................................................. 2-10 Database Integrity Mechanisms .................................................................................................... 2-11 System Availability Factors ............................................................................................................ 2-12 Secure Conﬁguration Practices....................................................................................................... 2-13 3 Protecting Data in a Network Environment Introduction to Data Protection in a Network Environment ..................................................... 3-1 Protecting Data During Transmission ............................................................................................ 3-2 Controlling Access Within the Network ................................................................................... 3-2 Middle-Tier Connection Management............................................................................... 3-2 Native Network Capabilities (Valid Node Checking) ..................................................... 3-2 Database Enforced Network Access................................................................................... 3-3 Encrypting Data for Network Transmission ............................................................................ 3-3 Encryption Algorithms......................................................................................................... 3-4 Data Integrity Checking ....................................................................................................... 3-4 Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) Protocol .......................................................................................... 3-5 Firewalls......................................................................................................................................... 3-5 Ensuring Security in Three-Tier Systems ...................................................................................... 3-6 Proxy Authentication to Ensure Three-Tier Security .............................................................. 3-6 Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) ........................................................................................... 3-7 JDBC-Oracle Call Interface Driver ...................................................................................... 3-7 JDBC Thin Driver .................................................................................................................. 3-7 4 Authenticating Users to the Database Introduction to User Authentication............................................................................................... 4-1 Passwords for Authentication .......................................................................................................... 4-2 Strong Authentication........................................................................................................................ 4-2 v Kerberos and CyberSafe .............................................................................................................. 4-3 RADIUS.......................................................................................................................................... 4-4 Token Cards................................................................................................................................... 4-4 Smart Cards ................................................................................................................................... 4-5 Distributed Computing Environment (DCE) ........................................................................... 4-6 Biometrics....................................................................................................................................... 4-6 PKI and Certificate-Based Authentication ................................................................................ 4-7 Proxy Authentication and Authorization....................................................................................... 4-7 Single sign-on ...................................................................................................................................... 4-9 Server-Based Single sign-on ........................................................................................................ 4-9 Middle Tier Single Sign-On......................................................................................................... 4-9 5 Using and Deploying a Secure Directory Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 5-1 Centralizing Shared Information with LDAP............................................................................... 5-2 Securing the Directory ....................................................................................................................... 5-3 Directory Authentication of Users ............................................................................................. 5-4 Password Protection in a Directory ........................................................................................... 5-4 Directory Access Controls and Authorization ......................................................................... 5-5 Directory-Based Application Security ............................................................................................ 5-6 Authorization of Users................................................................................................................. 5-6 Authorization of Administrators................................................................................................ 5-7 Administrative Roles in the Directory..................................................................................... 5-10 6 Administering Enterprise User Security Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 6-1 Enterprise Privilege Administration ............................................................................................... 6-2 Shared Schemas................................................................................................................................... 6-2 Password-Authenticated Enterprise Users..................................................................................... 6-3 Enterprise Roles .................................................................................................................................. 6-4 Multitier Authentication and Authorization................................................................................. 6-4 Single Sign-On .................................................................................................................................... 6-4 vi 7 Auditing to Monitor System Security Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 7-1 Fundamental Auditing Requirements............................................................................................ 7-1 Robust, Comprehensive Auditing ...................................................................................... 7-2 Efficient Auditing .................................................................................................................. 7-2 Customizable Auditing ........................................................................................................ 7-2 Fine Grained, Extensible Auditing ................................................................................................. 7-3 Auditing in Multitier Application Environments........................................................................ 7-3 8 The Public Key Infrastructure Approach to Security Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 8-1 Security Features of PKI .............................................................................................................. 8-1 Components of PKI ...................................................................................................................... 8-2 Advantages of the PKI Approach .............................................................................................. 8-3 Public Key Cryptography and the Public Key/Private Key Pair ............................................... 8-3 Secure Credentials: Certiﬁcate-Based Authentication in PKI.................................................... 8-4 Certificates and Certificate Authorities..................................................................................... 8-4 Certificate Authorities .......................................................................................................... 8-4 Certificates .............................................................................................................................. 8-5 Authentication Methods Used with PKI................................................................................... 8-5 Secure Sockets Layer Authentication and X.509v3 Digital Certificates ........................ 8-6 Entrust/PKI Authentication ................................................................................................ 8-6 Storing Secure Credentials with PKI.............................................................................................. 8-7 Single Sign-On Using PKI ................................................................................................................ 8-7 Network Security Using PKI ............................................................................................................ 8-8 Part III Oracle Security Products 9 Oracle Security Products and Features Oracle Standard Edition .................................................................................................................... 9-1 Oracle Identity Management ...................................................................................................... 9-2 Integrity.......................................................................................................................................... 9-3 Data Integrity ......................................................................................................................... 9-4 Entity Integrity Enforcement ............................................................................................... 9-4 vii Referential Integrity .............................................................................................................. 9-4 Authentication and Access Controls in Oracle......................................................................... 9-4 Privileges........................................................................................................................................ 9-5 Roles................................................................................................................................................ 9-5 Auditing ......................................................................................................................................... 9-6 Views, Stored Program Units, Triggers..................................................................................... 9-6 Data Encryption ............................................................................................................................ 9-6 High Availability .......................................................................................................................... 9-7 User Profiles ........................................................................................................................... 9-7 Online Backup and Recovery .............................................................................................. 9-8 Advanced Replication........................................................................................................... 9-8 Data Partitioning.................................................................................................................... 9-8 Very High Availability with Real Application Clusters .................................................. 9-9 Proxy Authentication in Oracle .................................................................................................. 9-9 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 9-10 Support for Additional Protocols...................................................................................... 9-10 Expanded Credential Proxy ............................................................................................... 9-11 Application User Proxy Authentication........................................................................... 9-11 Application Context in Oracle .................................................................................................. 9-12 How Application Context Facilitates Secure Fine-Grained Access Control ............... 9-12 Application Context Accessed Locally...................................................................... 9-13 Application Context Initialized Externally............................................................... 9-13 Application Context Initialized Globally.................................................................. 9-13 Application Context Accessed Globally ................................................................... 9-13 Oracle Enterprise Edition ................................................................................................................ 9-14 Internet Scale Security Features................................................................................................ 9-15 Deep Data Protection .......................................................................................................... 9-15 Internet-Scale Security ........................................................................................................ 9-15 Secure Hosting and Data Exchange .................................................................................. 9-16 Application Security................................................................................................................... 9-16 Virtual Private Database in Oracle........................................................................................... 9-16 Virtual Private Database..................................................................................................... 9-17 How Virtual Private Database Works .............................................................................. 9-18 How Partitioned Fine-Grained Access Control Facilitates VPD .................................. 9-19 User Models and Virtual Private Database ..................................................................... 9-20 viii Oracle Policy Manager........................................................................................................ 9-20 Secure Application Role ............................................................................................................ 9-21 Fine-Grained Auditing............................................................................................................... 9-21 Oracle Auditing for Three-Tier Applications ......................................................................... 9-22 Java Security Implementation in the Database ...................................................................... 9-23 Class Execution .................................................................................................................... 9-23 SecurityManager Class ....................................................................................................... 9-23 Oracle Advanced Security............................................................................................................... 9-23 Introduction to Oracle Advanced Security ............................................................................. 9-24 Network Security Services of Oracle Advanced Security .................................................... 9-25 Oracle Net Services Native Encryption............................................................................ 9-26 Data Integrity Features of Oracle Advanced Security ................................................... 9-27 Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) Encryption Capabilities...................................................... 9-28 Oracle Advanced Security Support for SSL ............................................................. 9-28 Checksumming in Oracle Advanced Security SSL ................................................. 9-28 Oracle Application Server Support for SSL.............................................................. 9-28 Java Encryption Features of Oracle Advanced Security................................................ 9-29 JDBC-OCI Driver.......................................................................................................... 9-29 Thin JDBC...................................................................................................................... 9-29 Secure Connections for Virtually Any Client........................................................... 9-30 Oracle Java SSL............................................................................................................. 9-31 Strong Authentication Methods Supported by Oracle Advanced Security ............... 9-31 Oracle Public Key Infrastructure-Based Authentication ........................................ 9-32 Kerberos and CyberSafe with Oracle Advanced Security ..................................... 9-34 RADIUS with Oracle Advanced Security................................................................. 9-34 Token Cards with Oracle Advanced Security.......................................................... 9-35 Smart Cards with Oracle Advanced Security .......................................................... 9-35 Biometric Authentication with Oracle Advanced Security.................................... 9-35 Distributed Computing Environment (DCE) with Oracle Advanced Security .. 9-35 Single Sign-On Implementations in Oracle Advanced Security .................................. 9-36 Single Sign-On Configuration with Third-Party Products .................................... 9-36 PKI-Based Single Sign-On Configuration................................................................. 9-36 Enterprise User Security Features of Oracle Advanced Security ........................................ 9-37 Password-Authenticated Enterprise Users...................................................................... 9-37 Tools for Enterprise User Security .................................................................................... 9-38 ix Shared Schemas in Oracle Advanced Security................................................................ 9-38 Current User Database Links............................................................................................. 9-39 Directory Integration........................................................................................................... 9-39 PKI Implementation in Oracle Advanced Security ............................................................... 9-39 Components of Oracle Public Key Infrastructure-Based Authentication ................... 9-40 Secure Sockets Layer.................................................................................................... 9-40 Oracle Call Interface..................................................................................................... 9-40 Trusted Certificates ...................................................................................................... 9-40 X.509 Version 3 Certificates ........................................................................................ 9-40 Oracle Wallets ............................................................................................................... 9-40 Oracle Wallet Manager ................................................................................................ 9-41 Oracle Enterprise Login Assistant ............................................................................. 9-41 Oracle Internet Directory ............................................................................................ 9-41 Oracle Enterprise Security Manager.......................................................................... 9-41 PKI Integration and Interoperability ................................................................................ 9-42 PKCS #12 Support ........................................................................................................ 9-42 Wallets Stored in Oracle Internet Directory ............................................................. 9-42 Multiple Certificate Support ....................................................................................... 9-42 Strong Wallet Encryption............................................................................................ 9-43 Oracle PKI Implementation Summary ............................................................................. 9-43 Oracle Label Security ....................................................................................................................... 9-44 Oracle Internet Directory................................................................................................................. 9-45 Introduction to Oracle Internet Directory ............................................................................... 9-46 LDAP Compliance ...................................................................................................................... 9-47 How Oracle Internet Directory is Implemented .................................................................... 9-48 How Oracle Internet Directory Organizes Enterprise User Management ......................... 9-49 Enterprise User Administration with Oracle Internet Directory.................................. 9-49 Shared Schemas with Oracle Internet Directory............................................................. 9-50 Oracle Net Services........................................................................................................................... 9-50 Components of Oracle Net Services......................................................................................... 9-50 Oracle Net on the Client ..................................................................................................... 9-50 Oracle Net on the Database Server ................................................................................... 9-51 Oracle Protocol Support ..................................................................................................... 9-51 Oracle Connection Manager .............................................................................................. 9-51 Protocol Conversion..................................................................................................... 9-51 x Access Control .............................................................................................................. 9-52 Session Multiplexing.................................................................................................... 9-52 Firewall Support with Oracle Net Services............................................................................. 9-52 Firewalls Using Oracle Connection Manager in an Intranet Environment ................ 9-52 Firewalls Using Oracle Net Firewall Proxy in an Internet Environment.................... 9-53 Valid Node Checking in Oracle Net Services......................................................................... 9-54 Database-Enforced VPD Network Access .............................................................................. 9-55 Oracle Application Server............................................................................................................... 9-56 Oracle HTTP Server.................................................................................................................... 9-56 Oracle Portal................................................................................................................................ 9-57 Single Sign-On in Oracle Application Server ......................................................................... 9-57 Web SSO Technology.......................................................................................................... 9-57 Login Server ......................................................................................................................... 9-58 LDAP Integration ................................................................................................................ 9-58 PKI Support.......................................................................................................................... 9-58 Multitier Integration ........................................................................................................... 9-59 Oracle Single Sign-On Summary ...................................................................................... 9-59 Index xi xii Send Us Your Comments Oracle Security Overview 10g Release 1 (10.1) Part No. B10777-01 Oracle Corporation welcomes your comments and suggestions on the quality and usefulness of this document. 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If you have problems with the software, please contact your local Oracle Support Services. xiii xiv Preface Oracle Security Overview presents the basic concepts of data security in an Internet environment. It outlines fundamental data security requirements and explains the risks that threaten the integrity and privacy of your data. Several chapters introduce the rich array of technology that can contribute to system security. The book concludes with a survey of the Oracle features and products that implement these technologies. Together, these products have the potential to control access to all the vulnerable areas of your system. They can help users and administrators to perform their tasks efﬁciently without jeopardizing the security plan you have put in place. This preface contains these topics: s Audience s Documentation Accessibility s Organization s Related Documentation s Conventions Audience Oracle Security Overview is intended for database administrators (DBAs), application programmers, security administrators, system operators, and other Oracle users who perform the following tasks: s Analyze application security requirements s Create security policies xv s Implement security technologies s Administer identity management and enterprise user security To use this document, you need general familiarity with database and networking concepts. Documentation Accessibility Our goal is to make Oracle products, services, and supporting documentation accessible, with good usability, to the disabled community. To that end, our documentation includes features that make information available to users of assistive technology. This documentation is available in HTML format, and contains markup to facilitate access by the disabled community. Standards will continue to evolve over time, and Oracle is actively engaged with other market-leading technology vendors to address technical obstacles so that our documentation can be accessible to all of our customers. For additional information, visit the Oracle Accessibility Program Web site at http://www.oracle.com/accessibility/ Accessibility of Code Examples in Documentation JAWS, a Windows screen reader, may not always correctly read the code examples in this document. The conventions for writing code require that closing braces should appear on an otherwise empty line; however, JAWS may not always read a line of text that consists solely of a bracket or brace. Accessibility of Links to External Web Sites in Documentation This documentation may contain links to Web sites of other companies or organizations that Oracle does not own or control. Oracle neither evaluates nor makes any representations regarding the accessibility of these Web sites. Organization This document introduces the basic concepts of system security in an Internet environment. It outlines the data security risks that are prevalent today, and the industry-standard technologies available to address them. It then presents the carefully integrated suite of Oracle products you can use to implement these security technologies. xvi Part I, "Security Challenges" This part explains the wide range of security risks to the integrity and privacy of data. Chapter 1, "Data Security Challenges" This chapter introduces the fundamental concepts of data security, and outlines the threats against which data and systems must be defended. Part II, "Technical Solutions to Security Risks" This part introduces the technology available to meet data security challenges. Chapter 2, "Protecting Data Within the Database" This chapter describes the fundamental elements of database security. Chapter 3, "Protecting Data in a Network Environment" This chapter explains how data can be protected while being transmitted over a network. It covers network access control, encryption, Secure Sockets Layer, and ﬁrewalls, as well as security in a three-tier environment. Chapter 4, "Authenticating Users to the Database" This chapter describes the wide range of technology available to verify the identity of database, application, and network users. Chapter 5, "Using and Deploying a Secure Directory" It can be advantageous to centralize storage and management of user-related information in a directory. This chapter describes how to protect such a directory, and how access can be controlled by using a directory. Chapter 6, "Administering Enterprise User Security" This chapter describes the elements that make up a strong enterprise user management facility. Chapter 7, "Auditing to Monitor System Security" This chapter describes technology available to monitor the effectiveness of your security policies. xvii Chapter 8, "The Public Key Infrastructure Approach to Security" This chapter introduces the public key infrastructure (PKI) approach to security. It describes the components of PKI, and explains why this has become an industry standard. Part III, "Oracle Security Products" This part presents the suite of Oracle security products that can meet your data security requirements. Chapter 9, "Oracle Security Products and Features" This chapter presents the major security-related products available with Oracle9i, and speciﬁes the way in which each of them implements the kinds of security technologies described in Part II of this book. Related Documentation For more information, see these Oracle resources: s Oracle Database Concepts s Oracle Database Application Developer's Guide - Fundamentals s Oracle Database Administrator's Guide s Oracle Advanced Security Administrator's Guide s Oracle Internet Directory Administrator's Guide s Oracle Label Security Administrator's Guide s Oracle Net Services Administrator's Guide s Single Sign-On Administrator’s Guide s Oracle Database Java Developer's Guide s Oracle Database JDBC Developer's Guide and Reference s Oracle Enterprise Manager Concepts Many books in the documentation set use the sample schemas of the seed database, which is installed by default when you install Oracle. Refer to Oracle Database Sample Schemas for information on how these schemas were created and how you can use them yourself. In North America, printed documentation is available for sale in the Oracle Store at xviii http://oraclestore.oracle.com/ Customers in Europe, the Middle East, and Africa (EMEA) can purchase documentation from http://www.oraclebookshop.com/ Other customers can contact their Oracle representative to purchase printed documentation. To download free release notes, installation documentation, white papers, or other collateral, please visit the Oracle Technology Network (OTN). You must register online before using OTN; registration is free and can be done at http://otn.oracle.com/admin/account/membership.html If you already have a username and password for OTN, then you can go directly to the documentation section of the OTN Web site at http://otn.oracle.com/docs/index.htm To access the database documentation search engine directly, please visit http://tahiti.oracle.com Conventions This section describes the conventions used in the text and code examples of this documentation set. It describes: s Conventions in Text s Conventions in Code Examples Conventions in Text We use various conventions in text to help you more quickly identify special terms. The following table describes those conventions and provides examples of their use. Convention Meaning Example Bold Bold typeface indicates terms that are When you specify this clause, you create an deﬁned in the text or terms that appear in index-organized table. a glossary, or both. xix Convention Meaning (Cont.) Example Italics Italic typeface indicates book titles or Oracle Database Concepts emphasis. Ensure that the recovery catalog and target database do not reside on the same disk. UPPERCASE Uppercase monospace typeface indicates You can specify this clause only for a NUMBER monospace elements supplied by the system. Such column. (fixed-width elements include parameters, privileges, You can back up the database by using the font) datatypes, RMAN keywords, SQL BACKUP command. keywords, SQL*Plus or utility commands, packages and methods, as well as Query the TABLE_NAME column in the USER_ system-supplied column names, database TABLES data dictionary view. objects and structures, usernames, and Use the DBMS_STATS.GENERATE_STATS roles. procedure. lowercase Lowercase monospace typeface indicates Enter sqlplus to open SQL*Plus. monospace executables, ﬁlenames, directory names, The password is speciﬁed in the orapwd ﬁle. (fixed-width and sample user-supplied elements. Such font) elements include computer and database Back up the dataﬁles and control ﬁles in the names, net service names, and connect /disk1/oracle/dbs directory. identiﬁers, as well as user-supplied The department_id, department_name, database objects and structures, column and location_id columns are in the names, packages and classes, usernames hr.departments table. and roles, program units, and parameter values. Set the QUERY_REWRITE_ENABLED initialization parameter to true. Note: Some programmatic elements use a mixture of UPPERCASE and lowercase. Connect as oe user. Enter these elements as shown. The JRepUtil class implements these methods. lowercase Lowercase monospace italic font You can specify the parallel_clause. monospace represents placeholders or variables. Run Uold_release.SQL where old_ (fixed-width release refers to the release you installed font) italic prior to upgrading. Conventions in Code Examples Code examples illustrate SQL, PL/SQL, SQL*Plus, or other command-line statements. They are displayed in a monospace (ﬁxed-width) font and separated from normal text as shown in this example: SELECT username FROM dba_users WHERE username = ’MIGRATE’; The following table describes typographic conventions used in code examples and provides examples of their use. xx

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