Introduction and history of cage culture
Open sea activities, such as cage àd pen culture, are viewed by many stakeholders in the industry as the aquaculture system of the millennium...
1 Introduction and History of Cage Culture
Chua Thia Eng1 and Elsie Tech2
1Partnerships
in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA),
DENR Compound, Visayas Avenue, Quezon City, Philippines; 2Asian Fisheries Society
25-A Mayaman Street, UP Village, Quezon City, Philippines
History of Cage Culture were also reports of similar culture
practices in Indonesia in the 1920s and
Open sea activities, such as cage and pen 1940s (Hickling, 1962).
culture, are viewed by many stakeholders in Marine fish farming in cages traces its
the industry as the aquaculture system of beginnings to the 1950s in Japan where fish
the millennium. Fish production from cages farming research at the Fisheries Laboratory
and pens (both in freshwater and marine of the Kinki University led to the com-
environments) contributes significantly to mercial culture of the yellowtail, Seriola
total foodfish produced. Cage culture has quinqueradiata. Takashima and Arimoto
made possible the large-scale production of (2000), however, traced back a history of 200
commercial finfish and will probably be years where wooden farm net cages were
the most efficient and economical way of being operated for anchovies or sardines or
raising fish. bait for skipjack. Similar cages were later
Aquaculturists realize the need to limit used for yellowtail culture in Japan and
further conversion of wetlands and man- developed into a significant industry as
groves into traditional aquaculture farms. early as 1960. The cage culture of common
We face a situation where even freshwater carp (Cyprinus carpio) in lakes also started
ecosystems have reached critical levels at this time (Kuronuma, 1968). Since the
with respect to their carrying capacities. 1970s, Thailand has developed cage culture
The depletion of ocean and coastal fishery techniques for two important marine finfish:
resources in some areas has led to the the seabream (Pagrus major) and grouper
development of marine cage culture. (Epinephelus spp.) (Coche, 1976). Chua and
The earliest record of cage culture Teng (1978) pioneered the development of
practices dates back to the late 1800s in cage culture methods/designs for groupers
Southeast Asia, particularly in the fresh- in Malaysia, although large-scale cage farm-
water lakes and river systems of Kampuchea ing in marine waters really gained ground in
(Coche, 1976; Pantulu, 1979; Beveridge, the 1980s and in inland waters in the 1990s
1987). The fish cultured included snake- (Shariff and Nagaraj, 2000). Korea started
heads (Channa spp.), catfishes (Pangasius growing a European variety of common carp
spp.) and gobies (Oxycleotris spp.). By 1995, and maintained yellowtail in holding cage
more than 5000 fish farmers were engaged enclosures in the late 1970s. By the end
in cage culture in the Mekong river system of 1980, cage culture of the olive flounder
around Phnom Penh (Thana, 1995). There (Paralichthys olivacens) and black rockfish
©CAB International 2002. Diseases and Disorders of Finfish in Cage Culture
(eds P.T.K. Woo, D.W. Bruno and L.H.S. Lim) 1
2 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
(Sebastes schlegeli) was established, and Clarias lazera (de Kimpe and Micha, 1974).
developed into a successful aquaculture Semi-intensive rearing was done in Lake
industry in the 1990s (Kim, 2000). Cage Victoria, Tanzania, using Nile tilapia
culture of groupers (Epinephelus spp.) in the (Tilapia zillii) (Ibrahim et al., 1974).
Philippines has been practised since the Research initiatives on intensive production
1980s. Mariculture of milkfish in the 1990s of commercial sized Tilapia nilotica were
led to the further growth and development of carried out in Lake Kossou, Ivory Coast
the industry (Marte et al., 2000). (Coche, 1974, 1975; Shehadeh, 1974). Cook
In Europe, cage culture of rainbow trout (1995) reported that it was only in the 1980s
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) in fresh water began that the potential of aquaculture in South
in the late 1950s and, in Norway, Atlantic Africa gained grounds with respect to
salmon (Salmo salar) followed in the 1960s. becoming a viable commercial industry.
More than 40% of its rainbow trout comes Freshwater aquaculture was limited to
from freshwater cages (Beveridge, 1987). availability of water while mariculture had
Salmonid culture is currently dominated by to rely on only 3000 km of coastlines (the
production from Norway, Scotland and majority of which did not have sheltered
Chile. Cage culture of fish was adopted in the bays or lagoons). In the years that followed,
USA in 1964 (Coche, 1976). Records show efforts were geared towards improvement in
commercial production of channel catfish the culture of tilapia and cage design (Coche,
(Ictalurus punctatus) in freshwater cages 1976).
(Collins, 1970a,b, 1972; Trotter, 1970; Currently many fish species have been
Bennet, 1971; Brett, 1974; Novotny, 1975). cultivated in various designs and sizes of
Cage culture in Africa, however, is still cages in Asia, Europe and other parts of
in its infant stage (ADB/NACA, 1998). In the world (Table 1.1). Tilapia and carp pre-
Central Africa, there was no real practical dominate in freshwater cage culture in Asia,
experience in cage culture before 1974. while salmonids are commonly farmed in
Very limited observations were recorded for Europe and the Americas.
Table 1.1a. Major species of freshwater finfishes cultured in cages.
Species cultured Country Reference
Anguillidae
Anguilla japonica (eel) China Yuan (1991)
Bagridae
Mystus nemerus (mystid catfish) Malaysia Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)
Chanidae
Chanos chanos (milkfish) Philippines Guerrero (1996); Ramos (1996); Bagarinao (1998);
Marte et al. (2000)
Channidae
Channa macrocephalus Thailand Lin (1990)
Channa micropeltes (snakehead) Cambodia Thana (1995)
Vietnam Pantulu (1976); Thuoc (1995)
Channa striatus Vietnam Pantulu (1976); Thuoc (1995)
Giant snakehead Malaysia Ang et al. (1988)
Characidae
Colossoma macropomum Brazil Chellappa et al. (1995)
(Amazonian fish tambaqui)
Cichlidae
Black tilapia Malaysia Ang et al. (1988)
Oreochromis mortimeri Zimbabwe Norberg and Stenstroem (1993)
Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) Zimbabwe Norberg and Stenstroem (1993)
Bangladesh Mazid (1995)
Malaysia Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)
Introduction and History of Cage Culture 3
Species cultured Country Reference
Philippines Santiago and Arcilla (1993); Lopez (1995)
Thailand Chiayvareesajja et al. (1990); Lin (1990)
Egypt Ishak and Hassanen (1987)
Red tilapia Malaysia Ang et al. (1988)
Sarotherodon aureus USA Schmittou (1969); Perry and Avault (1972)
El Salvador Bayne et al. (1976); Ramirez (1977); Sanchez
(1978); Street (1978)
Puerto Rico Jordan and Pagan (1973); Miller and Ballantine
(1974)
USA Williams et al. (1974)
Sarotherodon esculentus Tanzania Ibrahim et al. (1976)
Sarotherodon galilaeus Nigeria Konikoff (1975); Ita (1976)
Sarotherodon mossambicus Philippines Guerrero (1975); IFP (1976); Pantastico and Baldia
(1979)
Taiwan Maruyama and Ishida (1976)
Guatemala Bardach et al. (1972)
Sarotherodon mossambicus × USA Suffern et al. (1978)
S. honorum (hybrid)
Sarotherodon niloticus Sri Lanka Anon. (1980); Muthukumarana and Wcerakoon
(1987)
Ivory Coast Coche (1975, 1976, 1977, 1978); Campbell (1976);
Shehadeh (1976); de Kimpe (1978); Amoikon
(1987)
Nigeria Konikoff (1975); Campbell (1987)
Sarotherodon spilirus niger (tilapia) Kenya Haller (1974)
Tilapia Philippines PCARRD (1981); Aragon et al. (1985); Guerrero
(1985, 1996)
Tilapia Brazil FAO (1977)
Tilapia Dominican Olivo (1987)
Republic
Tilapia heudeloti Togo Issifou and Amegavie (1987)
Tilapia nilotica USA McGinty (1991)
Sierra Leone Iscandari (1987)
Togo Issifou and Amegavie (1987)
Tilapia niloticus Dominican Olivo (1987)
Republic
Nigeria Ali (1987)
Tilapia rendalli Colombia Patino (1976); McLarney (1978); Popma (1978)
Zimbabwe Norberg and Stenstroem (1993)
Tilapia zillii Tanzania Ibrahim et al. (1974)
Togo Issifou and Amegavie (1987)
Kenya Haller (1974)
Nigeria Konikoff (1975); Campbell (1987)
Clariidae
Clarias gariepinus Vietnam Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
South Africa Hoffman and Prinsloo (1992)
Clarias lazera (Nile catfish) Egypt Ishak (1987)
Clarias macrocephalus (catfish) Thailand Lin (1990)
Vietnam Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Cyprinidae
Abramis brana (bream) Russia Ziliukiene (1994)
Aristichthys nobilis (bighead carp) Nepal Swar and Pradhan (1992); Pradhan and Pantha
(1995)
Continued
4 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Table 1.1a. Continued.
Species cultured Country Reference
Malaysia Ang et al. (1988)
Philippines Fermin (1990); Marte et al. (2000)
Sri Lanka Muthukumarana and Weerakoon (1987)
Carps India Basavaraja (1994)
Carps Indonesia Costa-Pierce and Effendi (1988)
Carps Iran Matinfar and Nikouyan (1995)
Cirrhinus microbis Cambodia Thana (1995)
Cirrhinus sp. Cambodia Thana (1995)
Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass Malaysia Ang et al. (1988)
carp)
Nepal Pradhan and Pantha (1995)
Sri Lanka Muthukumarana and Weerakoon (1987)
Vietnam Lovatelli (1997)
Egypt Siemelink et al. (1982); Ishak (1987)
Netherlands Huisman (1979)
India Bandyopadhyay et al. (1991)
Cyprinids Philippines Lopez (1995)
Cyprinus carpio (common carp) Poland Filipiak (1991); Mamcarz (1992)
Russia Evtushenko (1994)
Nepal Pradhan and Pantha (1995)
Indonesia Costa-Pierce and Roem (1990); Zainal et al.
(1990)
Korea Kim et al. (1992)
Egypt Hamza (1996)
Israel Viola and Lahav (1991); Wolhfarth and Moav
(1991)
(mirror carp) Turkey Erden (1987)
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix Nepal Swar and Pradhan (1992); Pradhan and Pantha
(silver carp) (1995)
Egypt Hamza (1996)
India Sivakami and Ayyappan (1991)
(Javanese carp) Malaysia Ang et al. (1988)
Leptobarbus hoeveni (slender Vietnam Thuoc (1995); Lovatelli (1997)
carp/sultan fish)
Malaysia Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)
Indonesia Dahril and Ahmad (1990)
Nile carp Egypt Hamza (1996)
River carp Malaysia Ang et al. (1988)
Eleotridae
Goby Malaysia Ang et al. (1988)
Oxyeleotris marmoratus (sand Thailand Menasveta (2000)
goby)
Vietnam Lovatelli (1997)
Ictaluridae
Ictalurus punctatus (Channel USA Schmittou (1969); Perry and Avault (1972); Collins
catfish) and Delmendo (1979); Parker (1988); Masser and
Duarte (1992); Burtle and Newton (1993); Webster
et al. (1994)
Moronidae
Morone chryops × M. saxatilis USA Kelly and Kohler, 1996; Pagan (1970); Suwanasart
(sunshine bass) (1971); Pagan-Font (1975)
Osphronemidae
Osphronemus gourami Indonesia Ang et al. (1988)
(giant gouramy) Malaysia Ang et al. (1988)
Introduction and History of Cage Culture 5
Species cultured Country Reference
Vietnam Lovatelli (1997)
Pangasiidae
Pangasius bocourti (yellow catfish) Vietnam Lovatelli (1997); Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Pangasius conchophilis Cambodia Thana (1995)
Pangasius hypophthalmus Vietnam Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
(catfish)
Cambodia Thana (1995)
Pangasius lardnaudi Cambodia Thana (1995)
Pangasius micronemus Vietnam Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Pangasius nasutus (catfish) Vietnam Thuoc (1995)
Pangasius pangasius (river Thailand Menasveta (2000)
catfish)
Pangasius sutchii (striped Malaysia Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)
catfish)
River catfish Malaysia Ang et al. (1988)
Percidae
Perca fluviatilis (perch) France Tamazouzt et al. (1993)
Salmonidae
Coregonus Germany Marciak (1979)
Coregonus albula (vendace) Poland Mamcarz (1984)
Coregonus lavaretus (Baltic Finland Mamcarz (1984)
whitefish)
Germany Schultz et al. (1993)
Russia Jager and Nellen (1981)
(whitefish) France Champigneulle and Rojas-Beltran (1990)
Coregonus peled (peled) Canada Mamcarz and Kozlowski (1992)
Oncorhynchus mykiss Bolivia Menton (1991)
(rainbow trout)
Canada Srivastava et al. (1991); Cornel and Whoriskey
(1993)
Denmark Torrissen et al. (1995)
Iran Matinfar and Nikouyan (1995)
Sweden Alanaerae (1992)
Switzerland Mamcarz and Szczerbowski (1984)
Norway Torrissen et al. (1995)
Salmo salar (Atlantic salmon) USA Rottiers (1994)
Salmo trutta (broom trout) Indonesia Goeltenboth and Krisyanto (1994)
Stenodus (whitefish) Northern Bronisz (1979)
Europe
Sciaenidae
Sciaenops ocellatus (red drum or Ecuador Benetti et al. (1995)
red fish)
Israel Kissil (1996)
Panama Garces (1992)
Poland Mamcarz and Worniallo (1985)
Siluridae
Silurus glanis (sheat fish) Yugoslavia Stevic et al. (1993)
Esox lucius (pike) Russia Ziliukiene (1994)
Puntius gonionotus (minnows) Bangladesh Mazid (1995)
Vietnam Thuoc (1995)
Puntius schwanenfeldii (tinfoil barb) Indonesia Christensen (1993)
(minnows) Vietnam Thuoc (1995)
Puntius spp. Cambodia Thana (1995)
6 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Table 1.1b. Major species of brackish water finfishes cultured in cages.
Species cultured Country Reference
Chanidae
Chanos chanos (milkfish) Philippines Guerrero (1996); Ramos (1996); Bagarinao
(1998); Marte et al. (2000)
Cichlidae
Oreochromis urolepsis hornorum × O. USA Rust et al. (1991)
mossambicus male (Florida red tilapia)
Moronidae
Morone chryops × M. saxatilis (sunshine USA Pagan (1970); Suwanasart (1971);
bass) Pagan-Font (1975); Kelly and Kohler (1996)
Pisodonophis
Pisodonophis boro (brackishwater eel) Vietnam Lovatelli (1997)
Salmonidae
Coregonus lavaretus (Baltic whitefish) Germany Schultz et al. (1993)
Oncorhynchus mason rhodurus (Amago Yugoslavia Teskeredzic and Teskeredzic (1990)
salmon)
Salmo salar (Atlantic salmon) USA Rottiers (1994)
Table 1.1c. Major species of marine finfishes cultured in cages.
Species cultured Country Reference
Carangidae
Longirostrum/Caranx delicatissimus Japan Watanabe (1988a,b)
(striped jack)
Seriola dumerili Taiwan Su et al. (2000)
Seriola magatlana (Pacific yellowtail) Ecuador Benetti et al. (1995)
Seriola purpurescens (amberjack) Hong Kong Wong (1995)
Seriola quinqueradiata (yellowtail) Japan Fujiya (1976); Mitani (1979); Kafuku and
Ikenoue (1983); Shepherd and Bromage (1988);
Fukumoto (1989); Watanabe et al. (1996)
China Lin (1997)
Korea Shepherd and Bromage (1988); Fukumoto
(1989); Jeon et al. (1992); Kim (1995)
Sturgeon Iran Matinfar and Nikouyan (1995)
Sturgeon (beluga × sterlet, ‘bestir’) Russia Romanycheva and Salnikov (1979)
Trachinotus carolinus (pompano) USA Smith (1973)
Trachinotus oaitensis (pompano) Ecuador Benetti et al. (1995)
Trachinotus teraia France Trebaol (1991)
Centropomidae
Centropomus nigrescens (snook) Ecuador Benetti et al. (1995)
Lates calcarifer (seabass) China Yongjia et al. (1996)
Hong Kong Wong (1995)
Indonesia Sakaras (1982); Kungvankij (1987b)
Malaysia Singh (1991); Hannafi et al. (1995)
Philippines Toledo et al. (1991); Fermin et al. (1993);
Alcantara et al. (1995); Lopez (1995)
Singapore Anon. (1986); Cheong and Lee (1987)
Thailand Sakaras (1984); Kungvankij (1987a); Tookwinas
(1990b); Chaitanawisuti and Piyatiratitivorakul
(1994a)
Vietnam Lovatelli (1997)
Australia Barlow et al. (1995); Rimmer (1998)
Introduction and History of Cage Culture 7
Species cultured Country Reference
Characidae
Piaractus mesopotamicus (pacu) Brazil Ferraz de Lima et al. (1992)
Cichlidae
Oreochromis spilirus (tilapia) Kuwait Cruz and Ridha (1990b)
Oreochromis urolepsis hornorum × O. USA Rust et al. (1991)
mossambicus male (Florida red tilapia)
Cyprinidae
Barbus gonionotus (silver barb) Vietnam Lovatelli (1997)
Cirrhina (rohu) Nepal Pradhan and Pantha (1995)
Gadidae
Cod Norway Kaspruk and Tvejte (1994); Hjelt (2000)
Gadus morhua (Atlantic cod) Canada Jones and Iwama (1990)
Lutjanidae
Lutjanus argentimaculatus (red China Yongjia et al. (1996)
snapper)
Malaysia Ali (1987); Hannafi et al. (1995)
Philippines Emata (1996)
Singapore Cheong (1988)
Thailand Doi and Singhagraiwan (1993); Chaitanawisuti
and Piyatiratitivorakul (1994b)
Lutjanus erythropeterus Taiwan Su et al. (2000)
Lutjanus johni (golden snapper) Malaysia Hannafi et al. (1995)
Singapore Lee (1982); Anon. (1986)
Lutjanus russelli (Russell’s snapper) China Yongjia et al. (1996)
Hong Kong Wong (1995)
Malaysia Rahim (1982)
Lutjanus sebae Thailand Tanomkiat (1982)
Lutjanus stellatus Taiwan Su et al. (2000)
Pagrus major (Japanese red Israel Kissil (1996)
seabream/red seabream)
Japan Fukumoto (1989
Korea Kim (1995)
Taiwan Su et al. (2000)
Moronidae
Dicentrarchus labrax (seabass) Egypt Ishak and Hassanen (1987)
Italy Barbato et al. (1991)
(European seabass) Israel Kissil (1996)
Oplegnathidae
Oplegnathus fasciatus (rock bream) Korea Kim (1995)
Paralichthyidae
Paralichthys olivaceus (bastard Japan Watanabe (1988a,b)
halibut/flounder)
Japan Hiraishi et al. (1995)
Japan Kikuchi et al. (1993)
Korea Kim (1995)
(olive flounder) Korea Jeon et al. (1992)
Percichthyidae
Lateolabrax japonicus (Japanese Korea Kim (1995)
seabass)
Percidae
Stizostedion lucioperca (wild zander) Finland Salminen et al. (1992)
Pleuronectidae
Hippoglossus hippoglossus (Atlantic UK Martinez-Cordero et al. (1994)
halibut)
Continued
8 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Table 1.1c. Continued.
Species cultured Country Reference
Limanda herzentein (brown sole) Korea Kim (1995)
Limanda punctatissima (longsnout Japan Hiraishi et al. (1995)
flounder)
Rachycentridae
Rachycentron canadum Taiwan Su et al. (2000)
Salmonidae
Caspian salmon Iran Matinfar and Nikouyan (1995)
Onchorynchus kisutch (Coho salmon) Chile Jelvez-Flores (1992)
Oncorhynchus mason rhodurus (Amago Yugoslavia Teskeredzic and Teskeredzic (1990)
salmon)
Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout) Canada Srivastava et al. (1991); Cornel and Whoriskey
(1993)
Oncorhynchus tshavytocha (Chinook Canada Jones and Iwama (1990)
salmon)
Prosopium Germany Marciak (1979)
Salmo salar (Atlantic salmon) Canada Egan and Kenney (1990); Menton and Allen
(1991); Duston and Saunders (1994)
Scotland Glen (1974); Went (1980); Worniallo and
Mamcarz (1985); Sangster and Munro (1991);
Smith et al. (1993)
Norway Kraakenes et al. (1991)
USA Rottiers (1994)
Salmo trutta (broom trout) France Arzel et al. (1993)
Salvelinus alpinus (Arctic charr) Norway Torrissen et al. (1995)
Sciaenidae
Cynoscion stolzmanni (corvina) Ecuador Benetti et al. (1995)
Ophicephalus sp. (serpent head) Thailand Menasveta (2000)
Scianops teraia (Western African France Trebaol (1991)
pompano)
Sebastidae
Sebastes schlegeli (Schlegel’s China Liu et al. (1991)
black rock fish)
Korea Kim (1995)
Scophthalmidae
Scophthalmus maximus (turbot) France Vigneulle and Laurencin (1995)
Serranidae
Cephalopholis mimata Vietnam Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Cephalopholis pachycenteron Philippines Sayong (1981)
Epinephelus akaara Hong Kong Chao and Lim (1991); Wong (1995)
Japan Ukawa et al. (1966); Chao and Lim (1991)
Vietnam Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
China Chao and Lim (1991); Wong (1995)
Epinephelus alwaora (grouper) China Chao and Lim (1991)
Epinephelus amblycephalus Taiwan Maruyama and Ishida (1976)
Epinephelus areolatus Hong Kong Wong (1995)
(spotted grouper)
Epinephelus bleeker Philippines Kohno et al. (1988)
Epinephelus bleekeri Vietnam Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Epinephelus coioides Philippines Quinitio et al. (1997)
Taiwan Su et al. (2000)
Vietnam Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Epinephelus fario Sri Lanka Chao and Lim (1991)
Epinephelus fuscoguttatus Singapore Lim et al. (1990); Chao and Lim (1991)
Indonesia Chao and Lim (1991)
Introduction and History of Cage Culture 9
Species cultured Country Reference
Japan Chao and Lim (1991)
Philippines PCARRD (1986); Quinitio and Toledo (1991)
Epinephelus hexagonatus India Hamsa and Kasim (1992)
Epinephelus macrospilos Philippines PCARRD (1986); Quinitio and Toledo (1991)
Epinephelus malabaricus China Yongjia et al. (1996)
Philippines Kohno et al. (1988)
Epinephelus merra Philippines Sayong (1981)
Vietnam Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Epinephelus microdon Japan Chao and Lim (1991)
Epinephelus moara Japan Chao and Lim (1991)
(kelp bass) China Yongjia et al. (1996)
Epinephelus salmonoides Philippines Kungvankij et al. (1986)
Sri Lanka Chao and Lim (1991)
Japan Chao and Lim (1991)
Malaysia Chua (1979); Chua and Teng (1979, 1980)
Epinephelus sexfaciatus Philippines Kohno et al. (1988)
Vietnam Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Epinephelus spp. Malaysia Leong (1998)
Philippines Quinitio and Toledo (1991)
Singapore Anon. (1986)
Thailand Tookwinas (1990a); Menasveta (2000)
Epinephelus suillus Philippines Toledo et al. (1993)
Taiwan Maruyama and Ishida (1976)
Epinephelus summana Philippines Sayong (1981)
Epinephelus tauvina (green grouper, Hong Kong Wong (1995)
estuarine grouper)
India Hamsa and Kasim (1992)
Indonesia Lanjumin (1982)
Malaysia Chua and Teng (1978); Rahim (1982); Ali (1987)
Philippines Kohno et al. (1988); Lopez (1995)
Singapore Cheong and Lee (1987)
Singapore Chao and Lim (1991)
Kuwait Hussain et al. (1975); Chao and Lim (1991)
Siganidae
Siganus canaliculatus (rabbit fish) Indonesia Tacon et al. (1990)
Siganus guttatus (siganid) Philippines Lopez (1995); Soriano et al. (1995)
Vietnam Lovatelli (1997)
Sillaginidae
Sillago sihama (sand whiting) India James et al. (1985)
Sparidae
Acanthopagrus schlegeli (black Korea Kim (1995)
seabream)
Chrysophrys major China Yongjia et al. (1996)
(red pargo) Hong Kong Wong (1995)
Mylio latus (yellow finned seabream) Hong Kong Wong (1995)
Puntazzo puntazzo (sheepshead bream) Israel Kissil (1996)
Rhabdosargus sarba (goldlined Hong Kong Wong (1995)
seabream)
Sparrus aurata (gilthead seabream) Israel Kissil (1996)
Israel Porter et al. (1991)
Sparrus macrocephalus China Yongjia et al. (1996)
Tetraodontidae
Takifugu rubripes (tiger puffer) Japan Shepherd and Bromage (1988)
Korea Moon et al. (1993); Kim (1995)
10 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
The rapid growth of the industry in most system into the aquatic ecosystem the carry-
countries may be attributed to: (i) suitable ing capacity per unit area is optimized
offshore sites for cage culture; (ii) well because the free flow of current brings in
established breeding techniques that yield a fresh water and removes metabolic wastes,
sufficient quantity of various marine and excess feed and faecal matter (Beveridge,
freshwater fish juveniles; (iii) availability of 1983). Operationally, this has a number of
supporting industries, such as feed and fish- advantages. Some cage designs, especially
ing net manufacturers, and fish processors those used in inshore cultures, are rela-
and packers; (iv) strong research and devel- tively easy to construct with minimal
opment initiatives from institutions, govern- skilled labour, and cages utilize minimal
ment and universities; and (v) the private physical facilities and space. Economically,
sector ensuring refinement and improve- cage culture is a low-input farming practice
ment of techniques/culture systems, thereby with high economic return. However, cage
further developing the industry. culture is a high risk and labour-intensive
With the experiences seen in salmon operation. The practice is vulnerable to
farming, seabream (Sparus auratus) and sea- natural hazards (strong tides, storms and
bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) cage culture typhoons) and can be affected by deteriorat-
activities started to move toward offshore ing water quality attributed to chronic
areas. The lack or non-availability of pollution from oil and chemical spills from
sheltered sites in many regions because of oil tankers and cargo vessels (Tabira, 1980;
varied coastline configurations, the build-up Nose, 1985). In addition, poaching and
of organic matter in closed bays due to poor vandalism are reported by cage farmers. The
water exchange, and use conflicts between advantages and limitations of cage culture
industries and tourism for sea water were the are summarized in Table 1.2.
main reasons for such a shift (Lisac, 1991). In view of the high production attain-
Some of the offshore cage systems able in cage culture system and the presence
that later developed include: Dunlop of large sheltered coastal waters in many
Tempest I (Fearn, 1991); ‘SADCO’ cages countries, marine cage farming can play
(Muravjev et al., 1993); Ocean Spar a significant role in increasing fish
(Loverich and Croker, 1993); Farmocean production.
system (Gunnarson, 1993); Seacon system Cage culture systems vary in terms of
(Lien, 2000); and Bridgeton Hi-Seas farm size and intensity of operation. Floating
(Gunnarson, 1993; Lien, 2000). cages, for instance, in Korea can reach yields
Muir (1998) considered the following exceeding 500 t ha−1 (ADB/NACA, 1998).
criteria important for success in offshore
cage culture: (i) location (> 2 km from
shore); (ii) environment (average waves Cage Design
> 5 m, regularly 2–3 m oceanic swells,
variable wind periods); (iii) access (about Cage design is determined by conditions in
80% of the time when cages are accessible to the culture site, as well as the ecological
working staff); and (iv) operation (remote; requirements and behaviour of the target
with automated feeding devices and long- species for culture. Each design is site-
distance monitoring). specific and knowledge of the topography,
wind force, wind direction, prevalence of
storms, monsoons, wave load, current
Advantages and Limitations of velocity and water depths are important
Cage Culture parameters for consideration. In designing
cages, it is also important to consider the
In general, cage culture practices have rate of biofouling and the species composi-
numerous advantages over other culture tion of the marine fauna in and around the
systems. By integrating the cage culture potential site (Chua, 1982). A checklist of
Introduction and History of Cage Culture 11
Table 1.2. Advantages and limitations of cage fish culture technique.
Advantages Limitations
Maximizes use of available water resources Locations restricted to sheltered areas
Reduces pressure on land resources Requires back-up food store, hatchery and
processing facilities
Combines several types of culture within one water
body; treatments and harvests independent
Ease of movement and relocation of cages
Intensification of fish production (high densities and Needs adequate water exchange to remove
optimum feeding result in improved growth rates, metabolites and maintain high dissolved oxygen
reducing rearing period) levels; rapid fouling of cage walls requires frequent
cleaning
Optimum utilization of artificial food improves food Absolute dependence on artificial feeding unless in
conversion efficiencies sewage ponds; high-quality balanced rations
essential; feed losses possible through cage walls
Easy control of competitors and predators Sometimes important interference from the natural
fish population, i.e. small fish enter cages and
compete for food
Ease of daily observation of stocks for better Natural fish populations act as a potential reservoir
management and early detection and treatment of of disease and parasites, and the likelihood of
parasites and diseases spreading disease by introducing new cultured
stocks is increased
Reduces fish handling and mortalities Increased difficulties of disease and parasite
treatment
Easy fish harvest Risks of theft are increased
Storage and transport of live fish facilitated Amortization of capital investment may be short
Initial investment is relatively small Increased labour costs for handling, stocking,
feeding and maintenance
fish species popularly cultured in Asia with consists of a net bag supported by posts
cage and culture specifications is provided driven into the bottom of a lake or river. It is
in Table 1.3. traditionally used in tropical countries like
the Philippines for raising fish fingerlings.
It is inexpensive and simple to build. This
Types of cages type of cage is normally restricted to shal-
low areas with suitable substrates usually in
A fish cage is usually made up of netting freshwater systems.
with an opening at the surface to facilitate
feeding, removal of debris and dead fish, Floating
and for harvesting. The netcage system
consists of a netcage proper and the frame, A floating cage consists of a floating unit
which supports the nets. The frame is from which a single cage or a battery of
normally kept afloat by buoys, usually netcages is suspended. Floating cages are
metal (or traditionally plastic drums), and widely used for fish rearing in both fresh
held in position by anchors. Cages may be and coastal waters. They are less restrictive
classified as follows. in terms of site selection compared with
the stationary fixed types. Surface floating
Fixed cages are used in lakes, protected bays and
lagoons, sheltered coves and inland seas.
A stationary cage is fastened to a fixed The surface-floating unit consists of floats,
bamboo or wooden pole at its corners. It framework and netcage. Most floating cages
12
Table 1.3. Fish species and culture specifics of fish in Asia and Australia. (From Buendia, 1998).
Cage/pen Country/
Species dimension Culture specifics references
Milkfish (Chanos Rectangular marine pen, 20 × 50 × 60 m Stocking density is 30,000 fingerlings weighing 10 g; feeding Philippines (Ramos,
chanos) (1000 m2 × 6 m); wood, bamboo, polythene with commercial pellets or crumbles, given 3× daily to satiation, 1996; Bagarinao, 1998)
net and with FCR of 1.77; 138 days culture period, 94% survival;
production about 5–7 days
Seabass (Lates Cylindrical floating netcage, 2 m diameter Stocking density is 40 fish m−3 of size 18 cm; feeding with trash Thailand (Chaitanawisuti
calcarifer) × 2 m depth (6 m ); wood, bamboo,
3
fish, once daily; 9 months culture period, 95.4% survival; and Piyatiratitivorakul,
polythene and 200 l plastic drums for floats production of 490 g per fish 1994a)
Box-shaped floating netcage, 5 × 5 × 3 m; Stocking density is 44 fish m−3 of size 80–100 g; feeding with Singapore (Anon.,
wood and plastic drums trash fish, cooked rice bran and aquatic vegetation, with FCR 1986)
of 4.5:1; 6–7 months of culture, 90% survival; production of
T.E. Chua and E. Tech
600 g per fish
Rectangular broodstock floating netcage Stocking density is 60–80 fish per cage, sex ratio is 13–28 Philippines (Toledo et al.,
4 × 4 × 3 m, installed with a hapa net of the female:male fish; feeding with trash fish daily at 3–5% of body 1991)
same dimension with mesh size of weight; culture period of 4 years; fish matured and naturally
0.4–0.6 mm as egg collector; made of spawned; also demonstrates an efficient, simple and cheap
bamboo, wood and 200 l plastic drums egg collector (116 million eggs in one breeding season)
Circular or rectangular broodstock floating Stocking density is 1 fish m−3, sex ratio of 1:1 female:male fish; Australia (Rimmer,
netcages, 4 × 4 × 3 m or 10 × 10 × 2 m nylon feeding with trash fish and commercial bait fish (the pilchard 1998)
mesh of size 4–8 cm Sardinops neopilchardus) and vitamin supplement
2 × 2 × 1.5 m or 10 × 5 × 1.5 m floating Stocking density is 100 kg m−2 of size 15 cm; feeding with Australia (Barlow et al.,
netcage floating pellets twice daily (warm months) or once daily (winter) 1995)
to satiation, with FCR of 1.6–1.8:1; 8 months to 2 years culture
period; production of 350–600 g to 2–3 kg per fish
3 × 3 × 2 m floating netcage Stocking density is 15–25 fish m−3 of size 2–3 inches; feeding Malaysia (Singh, 1991)
with trash fish once daily; 6–8 months of culture; production of
500–600 g per fish
2.5 × 2.5 × 1.5 m bamboo and polythene Stocked with juveniles; feeding with trash fish at 5% of body Philippines (Alcantara
netting weight twice daily, with FCR of 3.6:1; 4 months culture period; et al., 1995)
growth rate of 4 g per day
5 × 5 × 2 m, galvanized iron pipe and Stocking density of 12–300 fish m−3; feeding fresh trash fish Thailand (Tookwinas,
bamboo, concrete weight twice daily, with FCR of 4–10:1; 12 months culture period; 1990b)
production of 1 kg per fish, 80–95% survival
Grouper (Epinephelus 3 × 3 × 2 m, 4 × 4 × 2 m or 5 × 5 × 2 m Stocking density is 20–30 fish m−3 measuring 9–10 cm, feeding Malaysia (Leong, 1998)
spp.) cages, bamboo or wood, with plastic with commercial feeds; 7–8 or 12–14 months of culture;
carboys and 2–5 cm mesh net production of 600–800 g per fish or 1.2–1.4 g per fish
5 × 5 × 3 m, wood and plastic drums Stocking density is 44 fish m−3 of size 80–100 g; feeding with Singapore (Anon., 1986)
trash fish at 3–5% of body weight twice daily; 6–7 months of
culture; production of 600 g per fish, 90% survival
2 × 2 × 2.5 m or coco lumber, with empty Stocking density is 120 fish m−3 of size 13–15 cm (grow-out), Philippines (Quinitio and
200 l plastic drums 5–13 cm (transition), or 2–3 cm (nursery); feeding with dry Toledo, 1991)
pellets and minced trash fish (grow-out) or Chlorella,
Brachionus and Artemia (nursery); FCR of 2.5–2.8:1 for dry
pellets and 6.3:1 for trash fish; culture period of 1 month
(nursery), 3 months (transition) or 8 months (grow-out);
Introduction and History of Cage Culture
production of 500–800 g per fish
5 × 5 × 2 m or 3 × 3 × 3 m, galvanized iron, Stocking density is 10–100 m−3 of size 7.5–10 cm; feeding with Thailand (Tookwinas,
wood, bamboo, empty plastic drums, artificial feeds and live or frozen trash fish and crustaceans, 1990a)
carboys, concrete weight feeds given at 10% body weight during the first 2 months, 5%
thereafter until harvest; 8 months culture period; production of
580 g per fish, 80% survival
7×8×2m Stocking density is 12–100 m−3 of size 12 cm or 20 g; feeds Thailand (Tookwinas,
given at 10% of body weight on the first 2 months, then at 5% 1990a)
on the third month; 10–18 months culture period; production of
700–900 g per fish
Red snapper (Lutjanus 3 × 3 × 2 m, bamboo frame, polythene net Stocking density is 90 fish m−3 of size 12 cm or 20 g; feeding Thailand (Chaitanawisuti
argentimaculatus) and 200 l plastic drums with chopped carangids (Seloroides spp.), feed given twice and Piyatiratitivorakul,
daily to satiation; 10 months culture period; production of 890 g 1994b)
per fish, 83% survival
1 × 1 × 1 m (for juveniles), 2.5 × 2.5 × 4 m Stocking density is 6 fish m−3 of size 30 g or 100 fish m−3 of size Thailand (Doi and
(grow-out) 10 cm or 20 g; feeding with trash fish once or twice a day; 9–10 Singhagraiwan, 1993)
months culture period; production of 500–960 g per fish, 95%
survival
Continued
13
14
Table 1.3. Continued.
Cage/pen Country/
Species dimension Culture specifics references
Golden snapper 5 × 5 × 3 m, wood and plastic drums Stocking density is 44 fish m−3 of size 80–100 g; feeding with Singapore (Anon., 1986)
(Lutjanus jobni) trash fish at 3–5% of body weight once or twice daily; 6–7
months of culture; production of 600 g per fish
Red seabream Square, circle cages of size 4 × 4 × 3 m, Stocking density is 100 fish m−3 (1-year-old fish); feeding with Japan (Shepherd and
(Pagrus major) 4 × 4 × 4 m, 5 × 5 × 5 m, 7 × 7 × 7 m or trash fish (anchovy and sardines) and moist pellets; 1–7 years Bromage, 1988;
20 × 20 × 5 m, cages may be synthetic, culture period; production of 800 g to 1.4 kg per fish Fukumoto, 1989)
nylon-coated wire or bamboo with styrofoam
as buoy
Yellowtail (Seriola Square, circle net enclosures made of Stocking density is 115–340 fish m−3 of size 200–500 g or 5 fish Japan (Shepherd and
quinqueradiata) bamboo, wood, 50 mm steel pipes; also big m−3 for size 1 kg; feeding with trash fish (anchovy, sardines, Bromage, 1988;
open sea cages of sizes 1600–2400 m2 with sand lance) and moist pellets; feed given 1–4× daily at 1–3% of Fukomoto, 1989)
T.E. Chua and E. Tech
1–6 cm mesh nets body weight or at 4–8% of body weight for fish less than 100 g;
FCR of about 5–9:1; 1–2 years culture period; production of
2.5–6 kg per fish
Square broodstock floating netcages Stocking density is 25 fish of size 0.89 g per cage; feeding with Japan (Watanabe et al.,
5×5×5m moist pellets once every 2 days at 3% of body weight; 20 1996)
months culture period or until fish reach maturity and spawning
(about 3.7 kg size)
Rabbitfish (Siganus 1 × 1 × 1.5 m cages housed in 6 × 6 m Stocking density is 15 fish of size 48–68 g per cage; feeding Indonesia (Tacon et al.,
canalculatus) floating raft with formulated diet, given 2× daily to satiation; 100 days culture 1990)
period; production of 119 g per fish, 100% survival
Carp Bamboo cages 3 × 4 × 0.5 m Stocking density is 1 kg m−3 (8–10 fish per kg); no feeding; 6 Indonesia (Costa-Pierce
months of culture in sewage canal; production of 800 g per fish and Effendi, 1988)
2000 × 5000 m3 pens made of casuarina Stocking density is 4–5 million fish ha−1 (3-day-old India (Basavaraja, 1994)
poles and bamboo and with monofilament hatchery-reared); feeding with a mixture of groundnut, oil cake
nylon fabric (30 cm mesh) and rice bran; with periodic dressing of organic (manure) and
inorganic fertilizers; 3–4 months of culture
Giant gourami 1.5 × 2 × 1 m cage made of bamboo and Stocking density is 15 fish m−3 of size 14 g or 9 cm; feeding with Malaysia (Ang et al.,
(Osphronemus wood yam and formulated diet, 3× daily at 5% of body weight; 1988)
goramy) 18 weeks of culture; production of 180 g fish, 99% survival
FCR, food conversion ratio.
Introduction and History of Cage Culture 15
have a rigid wooden or metal framework do not have catwalks and the surface unit
surrounded by a catwalk to facilitate consists of floats from which each cage is
operation and maintenance. The net bag is suspended.
supported by a buoyant collar or a frame,
and can be designed in various shapes and
sizes. Netcage proper. The netcage (Fig. 1.1) is
normally flexible, and made up of synthetic
Floats. Common flotation materials in- netting of nylon or polythene fibres
clude metal, plastic drums, PVC pipes, Sty- reinforced at the corners with polythene
rofoam, cement blocks, rubber tyres with ropes. The nets are kept stretched vertically
polystyrene, bamboo and logs. Metal drums with weights at the bottom of the cage or
coated with tar or fibreglass are popular fastened by rope to the framework (Kennedy,
because they are cheap, but they corrode 1975). The net can also be stretched with
easily in seawater and have a life span rectangular, round or square steel or PVC
ranging from 0.5 to 3 years (IDRC, 1979). pipes depending on the shape of the
Fibreglass drums or buoys are preferred by cage. Rigid cages, made of metal netting
commercial fish farmers as they can last for (galvanized mesh, copper–nickel mesh or
many years in seawater although the initial vinyl-coated mesh) mounted on rigid metal
cost is comparatively higher. Styrofoam or wooden frameworks, are also commonly
blocks, covered with polythene sheets used in sea farming (Swingle, 1971; Powell,
provide good buoyancy and may last for as 1976; Milne, 1979). The relative merits of
long as 5 years under tropical conditions. flexible and rigid cages are discussed by
Cement floats, though promising, require Hugenin and Ansuini (1978). The choice
skill in construction and are presently not of flexible or rigid types is dependent on
widely used. Bamboo and logs widely economics. Flexible cages are more widely
used in freshwater cages are also used in used in developing countries because of
constructing brackish and marine cages, but lower cost.
they are easily attacked by fouling and
boring organisms. Their life span in seawater Mesh size. This is determined by the size of
is relatively short (1–2 years). the fish to be stocked. Small mesh size nets
become clogged, especially in tropical areas,
Catwalk. For cages designed with a cat- and easily damaged by floating objects and
walk, the framework from which a single increased drag force and hence affect the
net or a battery of nets is suspended is morning load of the cages. As the fish grow,
usually large to provide a stable and rigid a larger mesh size should be used (Chua,
platform for workers. Some marine cages 1979).
Fig. 1.1. Set net showing typical netcage structure (King Chou Fish Net Manufacturing Co., Ltd).
16 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Rotating and non-rotating floating cages (Beveridge, 1987). Submerged cages are also
used in shallow water in Indonesia and
Rotating cages have been designed Russia (Vass and Sachlan, 1957; Martyshev,
primarily to reduce the impact of fouling 1983; Beveridge, 1987).
organisms and insects. The cage rotates
from a central axis attached to a solid
floating framework (Christensen, 1995).
Non-rotating types are widely used and may Shape and size of cages
be designed with narrow or wide collars.
Rigid narrow collars made of non-wooden In general, square or rectangular cages are
materials (glass fibre and steel) and buoys preferred because they are easy to construct
have been used in Western Europe. and maintain. They have been widely used
for the culture of yellowtail (Harada, 1970;
Fujiya, 1979), salmonids (Kennedy, 1975;
Submersible cages
Møller, 1979) and groupers (Chua, 1979).
Submersible cages (Figs 1.2–1.4) have also Cylindrical cages are also used for marine
been developed. This type of cage design or brackish water species such as milkfish
has no collar, and the bag rests on a frame (Yu et al., 1979) and rainbow trout (Tatum,
to maintain its shape. The position of 1973). Cylindrical cages are designed to
submersible cages (with reference to the rotate so as to delay biofouling (Caillouet,
water column) can be adjusted by means 1972). Other forms of cages such as orthogo-
of buoys. The cages are designed for deep nal (Anon., 1976; Milne, 1979) and octagonal
waters, to overcome strong waves, and (Møller, 1979) have been used for salmonid
strong and rough seas. The disadvantage of culture in Scotland, Norway and France.
submersible cages is that it is difficult to The size of cages ranges from less than
maintain the bag shape under water and 1 m3 to 50,000 m3. Freshwater cages for
not many species adapt to this condition tilapia in the Philippines and Indonesia are
Fig. 1.2. Submersible cage for yellowtail (from Fujiya, 1979).
Introduction and History of Cage Culture 17
usually very large (exceeding 100 m3) and capacity of the fish farmer(s) to manage and
are installed in calm shallow lakes (Chua, maintain. For tropical conditions where
1982). Currently, dimensions for marine biofouling can be rapid and heavy, net cage
cages are usually smaller, even in relatively sizes are between 20 and 50 m3. Various
calm waters, because large nets are difficult shapes and sizes of traditional cage struc-
to maintain due to biofouling problems in tures are shown in Figs 1.5 and 1.6. Figures
the marine environment. Although large 1.7–1.14 show other modifications in cage
size cages reduce construction costs, the structures and set-ups that have been devel-
optimum size must be within the physical oped through the years.
Fig. 1.3. Submerged trout cage, Russia (Martyshev, 1983).
Fig. 1.4. Submerged cage (King Chou Fish Net Manufacturing Co., Ltd).
18 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Fig. 1.5. Square cage (Fong Yu).
Fig. 1.6. Square cage (Water Diamond Equipment Co., Ltd).
Cage Culture Operations
Stocking
The stocking density depends on the
carrying capacity of the cages and the feed-
ing habits of the cultured species. For fish
such as bighead (Aristichthys mobilis) and
silver carp (Hypophthalmicthys molitrix),
which are low in the food chain, stocking
will also depend on the primary and
secondary productivity of the sites. When
feeding is required, the rate of water
exchange is an important consideration.
Studies have shown that optimal stocking
density varies with species and size of fish
(Brown, 1946; Chua and Teng, 1979). As
stocking density affects the growth rate of
fish (Stickney et al., 1972; Allen, 1974;
Fig. 1.7. Cage structures by EKSPORTFINANS Kilambi et al., 1977), determination of the
ASA. optimal stocking density is important in
Introduction and History of Cage Culture 19
Fig. 1.8. Prototype of modular steel cage: 8 × 8 m module can be divided into four 4 × 4 m cages (Cruz,
1998).
salmoides) (Chua and Teng, 1978). Optimal
stocking density ensures optimum yield
for food conversion, and low disease
prevalence with good survival rate.
Feeding
Feeding is a vital operational function
and is affected by the interplay of many
biological, climatic, environmental (water
quality) and economic factors. Growth rate
is affected by feeding intensity and feeding
time (Chua, 1982). Each fish species
varies in maximum food intake, feeding
frequency, digestibility and conversion
efficiency. These in turn affect the net yield,
survival rates, size of fish and overall
production of the cage. Trash fish is the
main feed for yellowtail, grouper, bream,
snapper and other carnivorous species
cultured in marine cages (Anon., 1986;
Fig. 1.9. Main cage structure with security chain. Quinitio and Toledo, 1991; Doi and
Singhagraiwan, 1993; Leong, 1998). The
shortage of trash fish as feed is a serious
cage culture. High stocking density may problem in Thailand, where the large-scale
create group effects resulting in high mor- development of catfish farming has resulted
tality, as in estuary grouper (Epinephelus in increased demand for trash fish (Chua,
20 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Fig. 1.10. Ocean catamaran fish farm.
Fig. 1.11. Aqualine prefabricated mooring system.
1982; Shepherd and Bromage, 1988; operator has to ensure that the cultured fish
Fukumoto, 1989). The shortage of trash fish grow at the expected rate with respect to
and fishmeal is recognized as an increasing feeding rate and stocking density, minimize
problem in aquaculture (Chua, 1982). This losses due to disease and predators, monitor
concern has been addressed by research environmental parameters and maintain
institutions and the private sector, bringing efficiency of the technical facilities (Chua,
forth developments and innovations in 1982).
formulated diet research. Maintenance work is also of vital impor-
tance. The entire structure (raft and netcages)
must be routinely inspected. Necessary
repairs and adjustments to anchor ropes and
Farm management netcages should be carried out immediately.
Plastic drum floats have to be regularly
Farm management must optimize produc- painted with non-toxic antifouling paints.
tion at minimum cost. Efficient manage- Scraping accumulated fouling organisms
ment depends heavily on the competence may be carried out by rotating the drums
and experience of the farm operator. The regularly. Monthly replacement of net
