Food Processing Handbook
There are many excellent texts available which cover the fundamentals of food
engineering, equipment design, modelling of food processing operations etc.
There are also several very good works in food science and technology dealing
with the chemical composition, physical properties, nutritional and microbiolog-
ical status of fresh and processed foods. This work is an attempt to cover the
middle ground between these two extremes. The objective is to discuss the tech-
nology behind the main methods of food preservation used in today’s food in-
dustry in terms of the principles involved, the equipment used and the changes
in physical, chemical, microbiological and organoleptic properties that occur
during processing. In...
Food Processing
Handbook
Edited by
James G. Brennan
Food Processing Handbook. Edited by James G. Brennan
Copyright © 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
ISBN: 3-527-30719-2
Further of Interest
W. Pietsch G.-W. Oetjen
Agglomeration in Industry Freeze-Drying
Occurrence and Applications Second, Completely Revised Edition
2004 2004
ISBN 3-527-30582-3 ISBN 3-527-30620-X
K. J. Heller (Ed.) O.-G. Piringer, A. L. Baner (Eds.)
Genetically Engineered Food Plastic Packaging Materials
Methods and Detection for Food and Pharmaceuticals
2003
2007
ISBN 3-527-30309-X
ISBN 3-527-31455-5
E. Ziegler, H. Ziegler (Eds.) K. Bauer, D. Garbe, H. Surburg
Handbook of Flavourings Common Fragrance
Production, Composition, Applications,
Regulations
and Flavor Materials
Preparation, Properties and Uses
Second, Completely Revised Edition
Fourth, Completely Revised Edition
2006
ISBN 3-527-31406-7 2001
ISBN 3-527-30364-2
J. N. Wintgens (Ed.)
F. Müller (Ed.)
Coffee: Growing, Processing,
Agrochemicals
Sustainable Production Composition, Production, Toxicology,
A Guidebook for Growers, Processors, Applications
Traders and Researchers
2000
2005 ISBN 3-527-29852-5
ISBN 3-527-30731-1
Food Processing Handbook
Edited by
James G. Brennan
Editor n All books published by Wiley-VCH are carefully
produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and
James G. Brennan publisher do not warrant the information contained
16 Benning Way in these books, including this book, to be free of
Wokingham errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that
Berks statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or
RG40 1 XX other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.
UK
Library of Congress Card No.: applied for
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data:
A catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library.
Bibliographic information published by
Die Deutsche Bibliothek
Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication
in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed
bibliographic data is available in the Internet
at
© 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA,
Weinheim, Germany
All rights reserved (including those of translation
in other languages). No part of this book may
be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting,
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are not to be considered unprotected by law.
Typesetting K+V Fotosatz GmbH, Beerfelden
Printing Strauss GmbH, Mörlenbach
Binding Litges & Dopf Buchbinderei GmbH,
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Printed in the Federal Republic of Germany
Printed on acid-free paper
ISBN-13: 978-3-527-30719-7
ISBN-10: 3-527-30719-2
V
Contents
Preface XXI
List of Contributors XXIII
1 Postharvest Handling and Preparation of Foods for Processing 1
Alistair S. Grandison
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Properties of Raw Food Materials and Their Susceptibility
to Deterioration and Damage 2
1.2.1 Raw Material Properties 3
1.2.1.1 Geometric Properties 3
1.2.1.2 Colour 4
1.2.1.3 Texture 5
1.2.1.4 Flavour 5
1.2.1.5 Functional Properties 5
1.2.2 Raw Material Specifications 6
1.2.3 Deterioration of Raw Materials 7
1.2.4 Damage to Raw Materials 7
1.2.5 Improving Processing Characteristics Through Selective Breeding
and Genetic Engineering 8
1.3 Storage and Transportation of Raw Materials 9
1.3.1 Storage 9
1.3.1.1 Temperature 11
1.3.1.2 Humidity 12
1.3.1.3 Composition of Atmosphere 12
1.3.1.4 Other Considerations 13
1.3.2 Transportation 13
1.4 Raw Material Cleaning 14
1.4.1 Dry Cleaning Methods 14
1.4.2 Wet Cleaning Methods 18
1.4.3 Peeling 20
1.5 Sorting and Grading 21
1.5.1 Criteria and Methods of Sorting 21
Food Processing Handbook. Edited by James G. Brennan
Copyright © 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
ISBN: 3-527-30719-2
VI Contents
1.5.2 Grading 24
1.6 Blanching 26
1.6.1 Mechanisms and Purposes of Blanching 26
1.6.2 Processing Conditions 27
1.6.3 Blanching Equipment 28
1.7 Sulphiting of Fruits and Vegetables 29
References 30
2 Thermal Processing 33
Michael J. Lewis
2.1 Introduction 33
2.1.1 Reasons for Heating Foods 33
2.1.2 Safety and Quality Issues 34
2.1.3 Product Range 35
2.2 Reaction Kinetics 36
2.2.1 Microbial Inactivation 36
2.2.2 Heat Resistance at Constant Temperature 36
2.3 Temperature Dependence 39
2.3.1 Batch and Continuous Processing 41
2.3.2 Continuous Heat Exchangers 43
2.4 Heat Processing Methods 48
2.4.1 Thermisation 48
2.4.2 Pasteurisation 48
2.4.2.1 HTST Pasteurisation 49
2.4.2.2 Tunnel (Spray) Pasteurisers 53
2.4.3 Sterilisation 53
2.4.3.1 In-Container Processing 53
2.4.3.2 UHT Processing 61
2.4.3.3 Special Problems with Viscous and Particulate Products 67
2.5 Filling Procedures 68
2.6 Storage 68
References 69
3 Evaporation and Dehydration 71
James G. Brennan
3.1 Evaporation (Concentration, Condensing) 71
3.1.1 General Principles 71
3.1.2 Equipment Used in Vacuum Evaporation 73
3.1.2.1 Vacuum Pans 73
3.1.2.2 Short Tube Vacuum Evaporators 74
3.1.2.3 Long Tube Evaporators 75
3.1.2.4 Plate Evaporators 76
3.1.2.5 Agitated Thin Film Evaporators 77
3.1.2.6 Centrifugal Evaporators 77
3.1.2.7 Ancillary Equipment 78
Contents VII
3.1.3 Multiple-Effect Evaporation (MEE) 78
3.1.4 Vapour Recompression 79
3.1.5 Applications for Evaporation 80
3.1.5.1 Concentrated Liquid Products 80
3.1.5.2 Evaporation as a Preparatory Step to Further Processing 82
3.1.5.3 The Use of Evaporation to Reduce Transport, Storage
and Packaging Costs 83
3.2 Dehydration (Drying) 85
3.2.1 General Principles 85
3.2.2 Drying Solid Foods in Heated Air 86
3.2.3 Equipment Used in Hot Air Drying of Solid Food Pieces 88
3.2.3.1 Cabinet (Tray) Drier 88
3.2.3.2 Tunnel Drier 89
3.2.3.3 Conveyor (Belt) Drier 89
3.2.3.4 Bin Drier 90
3.2.3.5 Fluidised Bed Drier 90
3.2.3.6 Pneumatic (Flash) Drier 93
3.2.3.7 Rotary Drier 93
3.2.4 Drying of Solid Foods by Direct Contact With a Heated Surface 94
3.2.5 Equipment Used in Drying Solid Foods by Contact
With a Heated Surface 95
3.2.5.1 Vacuum Cabinet (Tray or Shelf) Drier 95
3.2.5.2 Double Cone Vacuum Drier 95
3.2.6 Freeze Drying (Sublimation Drying, Lyophilisation)
of Solid Foods 96
3.2.7 Equipment Used in Freeze Drying Solid Foods 97
3.2.7.1 Cabinet (Batch) Freeze Drier 97
3.2.7.2 Tunnel (SemiContinuous) Freeze Drier 98
3.2.7.3 Continuous Freeze Driers 99
3.2.7.4 Vacuum Spray Freeze Drier 99
3.2.8 Drying by the Application of Radiant (Infrared) Heat 100
3.2.9 Drying by the Application of Dielectric Energy 100
3.2.10 Osmotic Dehydration 102
3.2.11 Sun and Solar Drying 104
3.2.12 Drying Food Liquids and Slurries in Heated Air 105
3.2.12.1 Spray Drying 105
3.2.13 Drying Liquids and Slurries by Direct Contact
With a Heated Surface 110
3.2.13.1 Drum (Roller, Film) Drier 110
3.2.13.2 Vacuum Band (Belt) Drier 112
3.2.14 Other Methods Used for Drying Liquids and Slurries 113
3.2.15 Applications of Dehydration 114
3.2.15.1 Dehydrated Vegetable Products 114
3.2.15.2 Dehydrated Fruit Products 116
3.2.15.3 Dehydrated Dairy Products 117
VIII Contents
3.2.15.4 Instant Coffee and Tea 118
3.2.15.5 Dehydrated Meat Products 118
3.2.15.6 Dehydrated Fish Products 119
3.2.16 Stability of Dehydrated Foods 119
References 121
4 Freezing 125
Jose Mauricio Pardo and Keshavan Niranjan
4.1 Introduction 125
4.2 Refrigeration Methods and Equipment 125
4.2.1 Plate Contact Systems 126
4.2.3 Immersion and Liquid Contact Refrigeration 127
4.2.4 Cryogenic freezing 127
4.3 Low Temperature Production 127
4.3.1 Mechanical Refrigeration Cycle 129
4.3.1 2 The Real Refrigeration Cycle
(Standard Vapour Compression Cycle) 131
4.3.2 Equipment for a Mechanical Refrigeration System 132
4.3.2.1 Evaporators 132
4.3.2.2 Condensers 133
4.3.2.3 Compressors 135
4.3.2.4 Expansion Valves 135
4.3.2.5 Refrigerants 136
4.3.3 Common Terms Used in Refrigeration System Design 137
4.3.3.1 Cooling Load 137
4.3.3.2 Coefficient of Performance (COP) 137
4.3.3.3 Refrigerant Flow Rate 138
4.3.3.4 Work Done by the Compressor 138
4.3.3.5 Heat Exchanged in the Condenser and Evaporator 138
4.4 Freezing Kinetics 138
4.4.1 Formation of the Microstructure During Solidification 140
4.4.2 Mathematical Models for Freezing Kinetics 141
4.4.2.1 Neumann’s Model 141
4.4.2.2 Plank’s Model 142
4.4.2.3 Cleland’s Model 142
4.5 Effects of Refrigeration on Food Quality 143
References 144
5 Irradiation 147
Alistair S. Grandison
5.1 Introduction 147
5.2 Principles of Irradiation 147
5.2.1 Physical Effects 148
5.2.2 Chemical Effects 152
5.2.3 Biological Effects 153
Contents IX
5.3 Equipment 154
5.3.1 Isotope Sources 154
5.3.2 Machine Sources 157
5.3.3 Control and Dosimetry 159
5.4 Safety Aspects 160
5.5 Effects on the Properties of Food 160
5.6 Detection Methods for Irradiated Foods 162
5.7 Applications and Potential Applications 163
5.7.1 General Effects and Mechanisms of Irradiation 164
5.7.1.1 Inactivation of Microorganisms 164
5.7.1.2 Inhibition of Sprouting 166
5.7.1.3 Delay of Ripening and Senescence 166
5.7.1.4 Insect Disinfestation 166
5.7.1.5 Elimination of Parasites 167
5.7.1.6 Miscellaneous Effects on Food Properties and Processing 167
5.7.1.7 Combination Treatments 167
5.7.2 Applications to Particular Food Classes 167
5.7.2.1 Meat and Meat Products 167
5.7.2.2 Fish and Shellfish 169
5.7.2.3 Fruits and Vegetables 169
5.7.2.4 Bulbs and Tubers 170
5.7.2.5 Spices and Herbs 170
5.7.2.6 Cereals and Cereal Products 170
5.7.2.7 Other Miscellaneous Foods 170
References 171
6 High Pressure Processing 173
Margaret F. Patterson, Dave A. Ledward and Nigel Rogers
6.1 Introduction 173
6.2 Effect of High Pressure on Microorganisms 176
6.2.1 Bacterial Spores 176
6.2.2 Vegetative Bacteria 177
6.2.3 Yeasts and Moulds 177
6.2.4 Viruses 178
6.2.5 Strain Variation Within a Species 178
6.2.6 Stage of Growth of Microorganisms 178
6.2.7 Magnitude and Duration of the Pressure Treatment 179
6.2.8 Effect of Temperature on Pressure Resistance 179
6.2.9 Substrate 179
6.2.10 Combination Treatments Involving Pressure 180
6.2.11 Effect of High Pressure on the Microbiological Quality
of Foods 180
6.3 Ingredient Functionality 181
6.4 Enzyme Activity 183
6.5 Foaming and Emulsification 185
X Contents
6.6 Gelation 187
6.7 Organoleptic Considerations 189
6.8 Equipment for HPP 190
6.8.1 ‘Continuous’ System 190
6.8.2 ‘Batch’ System 191
6.9 Pressure Vessel Considerations 193
6.9.1 HP Pumps 194
6.9.2 Control Systems 195
6.10 Current and Potential Applications of HPP for Foods 195
References 197
7 Pulsed Electric Field Processing, Power Ultrasound
and Other Emerging Technologies 201
Craig E. Leadley and Alan Williams
7.1 Introduction 201
7.2 Pulsed Electric Field Processing 203
7.2.1 Definition of Pulsed Electric Fields 203
7.2.2 Pulsed Electric Field Processing – A Brief History 203
7.2.3 Effects of PEF on Microorganisms 204
7.2.3.1 Electrical Breakdown 204
7.2.3.2 Electroporation 205
7.2.4 Critical Factors in the Inactivation of Microorganisms
Using PEF 205
7.2.4.1 Process Factors 205
7.2.4.2 Product Factors 206
7.2.4.3 Microbial Factors 206
7.2.5 Effects of PEF on Food Enzymes 206
7.2.6 Basic Engineering Aspects of PEF 208
7.2.6.1 Pulse Shapes 208
7.2.6.2 Chamber Designs 210
7.2.7 Potential Applications for PEF 211
7.2.7.1 Preservation Applications 211
7.2.7.2 Nonpreservation Applications 212
7.2.8 The Future for PEF 213
7.3 Power Ultrasound 214
7.3.1 Definition of Power Ultrasound 214
7.3.2 Generation of Power Ultrasound 215
7.3.3 System Types 216
7.3.3.1 Ultrasonic Baths 216
7.3.3.2 Ultrasonic Probes 216
7.3.3.3 Parallel Vibrating Plates 217
7.3.3.4 Radial Vibrating Systems 217
7.3.3.5 Airborne Power Ultrasound Technology 217
7.3.4 Applications for Power Ultrasound in the Food Industry 218
7.3.4.1 Ultrasonically Enhanced Oxidation 218
Contents XI
7.3.4.2 Ultrasonic Stimulation of Living Cells 218
7.3.4.3 Ultrasonic Emulsification 220
7.3.4.4 Ultrasonic Extraction 220
7.3.4.5 Ultrasound and Meat Processing 220
7.3.4.6 Crystallisation 220
7.3.4.7 Degassing 221
7.3.4.8 Filtration 221
7.3.4.9 Drying 222
7.3.4.10 Effect of Ultrasound on Heat Transfer 222
7.3.5 Inactivation of Microorganisms Using Power Ultrasound 222
7.3.5.1 Mechanism of Ultrasound Action 222
7.3.5.2 Factors Affecting Cavitation 223
7.3.5.3 Factors Affecting Microbiological Sensitivity to Ultrasound 224
7.3.5.4 Effect of Treatment Medium 224
7.3.5.5 Combination Treatments 225
7.3.6 Effect of Power Ultrasound on Enzymes 227
7.3.7 Effects of Ultrasound on Food Quality 227
7.3.8 The Future for Power Ultrasound 228
7.4 Other Technologies with Potential 229
7.4.1 Pulsed Light 229
7.4.2 High Voltage Arc Discharge 230
7.4.3 Oscillating Magnetic Fields 230
7.4.4 Plasma Processing 230
7.4.5 Pasteurisation Using Carbon Dioxide 231
7.5 Conclusions 231
References 232
8 Baking, Extrusion and Frying 237
Bogdan J. Dobraszczyk, Paul Ainsworth, Senol Ibanoglu
and Pedro Bouchon
8.1 Baking Bread 237
8.1.1 General Principles 237
8.1.2 Methods of Bread Production 238
8.1.2.1 Bulk Fermentation 239
8.1.2.2 Chorleywood Bread Process 239
8.1.3 The Baking Process 242
8.1.3.1 Mixing 242
8.1.3.2 Fermentation (Proof) 242
8.1.3.3 Baking 243
8.1.4 Gluten Polymer Structure, Rheology and Baking 244
8.1.5 Baking Quality and Rheology 249
8.2 Extrusion 251
8.2.1 General Principles 251
8.2.1.1 The Extrusion Process 252
8.2.1.2 Advantages of the Extrusion Process 253
XII Contents
8.2.2 Extrusion Equipment 254
8.2.2.1 Single-Screw Extruders 255
8.2.2.2 Twin-Screw Extruders 256
8.2.2.3 Comparison of Single- and Twin-Screw Extruders 258
8.2.3 Effects of Extrusion on the Properties of Foods 259
8.2.3.1 Extrusion of Starch-Based Products 259
8.2.3.2 Nutritional Changes 264
8.2.3.3 Flavour Formation and Retention During Extrusion 267
8.3 Frying 269
8.3.1 General Principles 269
8.3.1.1 The Frying Process 270
8.3.1.2 Fried Products 270
8.3.2 Frying Equipment 272
8.3.2.1 Batch Frying Equipment 272
8.3.2.2 Continuous Frying Equipment 272
8.3.2.3 Oil-Reducing System 273
8.3.3 Frying Oils 274
8.3.4 Potato Chip and Potato Crisp Production 275
8.3.4.1 Potato Chip Production 276
8.3.4.2 Potato Crisp Production 277
8.3.5 Heat and Mass Transfer During Deep-Fat Frying 278
8.3.6 Modelling Deep-Fat Frying 279
8.3.7 Kinetics of Oil Uptake 280
8.3.8 Factors Affecting Oil Absorption 280
8.3.9 Microstructural Changes During Deep-Fat Frying 281
References 283
9 Packaging 291
James G. Brennan and Brian P. F. Day
9.1 Introduction 291
9.2 Factors Affecting the Choice of a Packaging Material
and/or Container for a Particular Duty 292
9.2.1 Mechanical Damage 292
9.2.2 Permeability Characteristics 292
9.2.3 Greaseproofness 294
9.2.4 Temperature 294
9.2.5 Light 295
9.2.6 Chemical Compatibility of the Packaging Material and the Contents
of the Package 295
9.2.7 Protection Against Microbial Contamination 297
9.2.8 In-Package Microflora 297
9.2.9 Protection Against Insect and Rodent Infestation 297
9.2.10 Taint 298
9.2.11 Tamper-Evident/Resistant Packages 299
9.2.12 Other Factors 299
Contents XIII
9.3 Materials and Containers Used for Packaging Foods 300
9.3.1 Papers, Paperboards and Fibreboards 300
9.3.1.1 Papers 300
9.3.1.2 Paperboards 301
9.3.1.3 Moulded Pulp 302
9.3.1.4 Fibreboards 302
9.3.1.5 Composite Containers 303
9.3.2 Wooden Containers 303
9.3.3 Textiles 303
9.3.4 Flexible Films 304
9.3.4.1 Regenerated Cellulose 305
9.3.4.2 Cellulose Acetate 306
9.3.4.3 Polyethylene 306
9.3.4.4 Polyvinyl Chloride 306
9.3.4.5 Polyvinylidene Chloride 307
9.3.4.6 Polypropylene 307
9.3.4.7 Polyester 308
9.3.4.8 Polystyrene 308
9.3.4.9 Polyamides 308
9.3.4.10 Polycarbonate 309
9.3.4.11 Polytetrafluoroethylene 309
9.3.4.12 Ionomers 309
9.3.4.13 Ethylene-vinyl Acetate Copolymers 309
9.3.5 Metallised Films 310
9.3.6 Flexible Laminates 310
9.3.7 Heat-Sealing Equipment 311
9.3.8 Packaging in Flexible Films and Laminates 312
9.3.9 Rigid and Semirigid Plastic Containers 314
9.3.9.1 Thermoforming 314
9.3.9.2 Blow Moulding 315
9.3.9.3 Injection Moulding 315
9.3.9.4 Compression Moulding 315
9.3.10 Metal Materials and Containers 315
9.3.10.1 Aluminium Foil 316
9.3.10.2 Tinplate 316
9.3.10.3 Electrolytic Chromium-Coated Steel 319
9.3.10.4 Aluminium Alloy 319
9.3.10.5 Metal Containers 320
9.3.11 Glass and Glass Containers 322
9.4 Modified Atmosphere Packaging 325
9.5 Aseptic Packaging 329
9.6 Active Packaging 331
9.6.1 Background Information 331
9.6.2 Oxygen Scavengers 334
9.6.3 Carbon Dioxide Scavengers/Emitters 337
XIV Contents
9.6.4 Ethylene Scavengers 337
9.6.5 Ethanol Emitters 339
9.6.6 Preservative Releasers 340
9.6.7 Moisture Absorbers 341
9.6.8 Flavour/Odour Adsorbers 342
9.6.9 Temperature Control Packaging 343
9.6.10 Food Safety, Consumer Acceptability and Regulatory Issues 344
9.6.11 Conclusions 345
References 346
10 Safety in Food Processing 351
Carol A. Wallace
10.1 Introduction 351
10.2 Safe Design 351
10.2.1 Food Safety Hazards 352
10.2.2 Intrinsic Factors 354
10.2.3 Food Processing Technologies 355
10.2.4 Food Packaging Issues 355
10.3 Prerequisite Good Manufacturing Practice Programmes 355
10.3.1 Prerequisite Programmes – The Essentials 357
10.3.2 Validation and Verification of Prerequisite Programmes 361
10.4 HACCP, the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point
System 362
10.4.1 Developing a HACCP System 362
10.4.2 Implementing and Maintaining a HACCP System 370
10.4.3 Ongoing Control of Food Safety in Processing 370
References 371
11 Process Control In Food Processing 373
Keshavan Niranjan, Araya Ahromrit and Ahok S. Khare
11.1 Introduction 373
11.2 Measurement of Process Parameters 373
11.3 Control Systems 374
11.3.1 Manual Control 374
11.3.2 Automatic Control 376
11.3.2.1 On/Off (Two Position) Controller 376
11.3.2.2 Proportional Controller 377
11.3.2.3 Proportional Integral Controller 378
11.3.2.4 Proportional Integral Derivative Controller 379
11.4 Process Control in Modern Food Processing 380
11.4.1 Programmable Logic Controller 381
11.4.2 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition 381
11.4.3 Manufacturing Execution Systems 382
11.5 Concluding Remarks 384
References 384
Contents XV
12 Environmental Aspects of Food Processing 385
Niharika Mishra, Ali Abd El-Aal Bakr and Keshavan Niranjan
12.1 Introduction 385
12.2 Waste Characteristics 386
12.2.1 Solid Wastes 387
12.2.2 Liquid Wastes 387
12.2.3 Gaseous Wastes 387
12.3 Wastewater Processing Technology 387
12.4 Resource Recovery From Food Processing Wastes 388
12.5 Environmental Impact of Packaging Wastes 389
12.5.1 Packaging Minimisation 389
12.5.2 Packaging Materials Recycling 390
12.6 Refrigerents 392
12.7 Energy Issues Related to Environment 394
12.8 Life Cycle Assessment 396
References 397
13 Water and Waste Treatment 399
R. Andrew Wilbey
13.1 Introduction 399
13.2 Fresh Water 399
13.2.1 Primary Treatment 400
13.2.2 Aeration 401
13.2.3 Coagulation, Flocculation and Clarification 401
13.2.4 Filtration 403
13.2.5 Disinfection 406
13.2.5.1 Chlorination 406
13.2.5.2 Ozone 408
13.2.6 Boiler Waters 409
13.2.7 Refrigerant Waters 410
13.3 Waste Water 410
13.3.1 Types of Waste from Food Processing Operations 411
13.3.2 Physical Treatment 412
13.3.3 Chemical Treatment 413
13.3.4 Biological Treatments 413
13.3.4.1 Aerobic Treatment – Attached Films 414
13.3.4.2 Aerobic Treatment – Suspended Biomass 417
13.3.4.3 Aerobic Treatment – Low Technology 419
13.3.4.4 Anaerobic Treatments 419
13.3.4.5 Biogas Utilisation 424
13.4 Sludge Disposal 425
13.5 Final Disposal of Waste Water 425
References 426
XVI Contents
14 Separations in Food Processing 429
James G. Brennan, Alistair S. Grandison and Michael J. Lewis
14.1 Introduction 429
14.1.1 Separations from Solids 430
14.1.1.1 Solid-Solid Separations 430
14.1.1.2 Separation From a Solid Matrix 430
14.1.2 Separations From Liquids 430
14.1.2.1 Liquid-Solid Separations 431
14.1.2.2 Immiscible Liquids 431
14.1.2.3 General Liquid Separations 431
14.1.3 Separations From Gases and Vapours 432
14.2 Solid-Liquid Filtration 432
14.2.1 General Principles 432
14.2.2 Filter Media 434
14.2.3 Filter Aids 434
14.2.4 Filtration Equipment 435
14.2.4.1 Pressure Filters 435
14.2.4.2 Vacuum Filters 439
14.2.4.3 Centrifugal Filters (Filtering Centrifugals, Basket Centrifuges) 440
14.2.5 Applications of Filtration in Food Processing 442
14.2.5.1 Edible Oil Refining 442
14.2.5.2 Sugar Refining 442
14.2.5.3 Beer Production 443
14.2.5.4 Wine Making 443
14.3 Centrifugation 444
14.3.1 General Principles 444
14.3.1.1 Separation of Immiscible Liquids 444
14.3.1.2 Separation of Insoluble Solids from Liquids 446
14.3.2 Centrifugal Equipment 447
14.3.2.1 Liquid-Liquid Centrifugal Separators 447
14.3.2.2 Solid-Liquid Centrifugal Separators 448
14.3.3 Applications for Centrifugation in Food Processing 450
14.3.3.1 Milk Products 450
14.3.3.2 Edible Oil Refining 451
14.3.3.3 Beer Production 451
14.3.3.4 Wine Making 451
14.3.3.5 Fruit Juice Processing 451
14.4 Solid-Liquid Extraction (Leaching) 452
14.4.1 General Principles 452
14.4.2 Extraction Equipment 455
14.4.2.1 Single-Stage Extractors 455
14.4.2.2 Multistage Static Bed Extractors 456
14.4.2.3 Multistage Moving Bed Extractors 457
14.4.3 Applications for Solid-Liquid Extraction in Food Processing 459
14.4.3.1 Edible Oil Extraction 459
Contents XVII
14.4.3.2 Extraction of Sugar from Sugar Beet 459
14.4.3.3 Manufacture of Instant Coffee 459
14.4.3.4 Manufacture of Instant Tea 460
14.4.3.5 Fruit and Vegetable Juice Extraction 460
14.4.4 The Use of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide as a Solvent 460
14.5 Distillation 462
14.5.1 General Principles 462
14.5.2 Distillation Equipment 466
14.5.2.1 Pot Stills 466
14.5.2.2 Continuous Distillation (Fractionating) Columns 466
14.5.3 Applications of Distillation in Food Processing 467
14.5.3.1 Manufacture of Whisky 467
14.5.3.2 Manufacture of Neutral Spirits 469
14.6 Crystallisation 471
14.6.1 General Principles 471
14.6.1.1 Crystal Structure 471
14.6.1.2 The Crystallisation Process 471
14.6.2 Equipment Used in Crystallisation Operations 475
14.6.3 Food Industry Applications 476
14.6.3.1 Production of Sugar 476
14.6.3.2 Production of Salt 477
14.6.3.3 Salad Dressings and Mayonnaise 477
14.6.3.4 Margarine and Pastry Fats 477
14.6.3.5 Freeze Concentration 477
14.7 Membrane Processes 478
14.7.1 Introduction 478
14.7.2 Terminology 479
14.7.3 Membrane Characteristics 480
14.7.4 Flux Rate 481
14.7.5 Transport Phenomena and Concentration Polarisation 481
14.7.6 Membrane Equipment 483
14.7.7 Membrane Configuration 483
14.7.8 Safety and Hygiene Considerations 486
14.7.9 Applications for Reverse Osmosis 488
14.7.9.1 Milk Processing 488
14.7.9.2 Other Foods 489
14.7.10 Applications for Nanofiltration 489
14.7.11 Applications for Ultrafiltration 490
14.7.11.1 Milk Products 490
14.7.11.2 Oilseed and Vegetable Proteins 492
14.7.11.3 Animal Products 492
14.7.12 Applications for Microfiltration 493
14.8 Ion Exchange 495
14.8.1 General Principles 495
14.8.2 Ion Exchange Equipment 497
XVIII Contents
14.8.3 Applications of Ion Exchange in the Food Industry 500
14.8.3.1 Softening and Demineralisation 500
14.8.3.2 Decolourisation 502
14.8.3.3 Protein Purification 502
14.8.3.4 Other Separations 503
14.8.4 Conclusion 504
14.9 Electrodialysis 504
14.9.1 General Principles and Equipment 504
14.9.2 Applications for Electrodialysis 506
References 507
15 Mixing, Emulsification and Size Reduction 513
James G. Brennan
15.1 Mixing (Agitation, Blending) 513
15.1.1 Introduction 513
15.1.2 Mixing of Low and Moderate Viscosity Liquids 513
15.1.2.1 Paddle Mixer 515
15.1.2.2 Turbine Mixer 515
15.1.2.3 Propeller Mixer 516
15.1.3 Mixing of High Viscosity Liquids, Pastes and Plastic Solids 517
15.1.3.1 Paddle Mixers 519
15.1.3.2 Pan (Bowl, Can) Mixers 519
15.1.3.3 Kneaders (Dispersers, Masticators) 519
15.1.3.4 Continuous Mixers for Pastelike Materials 519
15.1.3.5 Static Inline Mixers 520
15.1.4 Mixing Dry, Particulate Solids 520
15.1.4.1 Horizontal Screw and Ribbon Mixers 521
15.1.4.2 Vertical Screw Mixers 522
15.1.4.3 Tumbling Mixers 522
15.1.4.4 Fluidised Bed Mixers 523
15.1.5 Mixing of Gases and Liquids 523
15.1.6 Applications for Mixing in Food Processing 524
15.1.6.1 Low Viscosity Liquids 524
15.1.6.2 Viscous Materials 524
15.1.6.3 Particulate Solids 524
15.1.6.4 Gases into Liquids 524
15.2 Emulsification 524
15.2.1 Introduction 524
15.2.2 Emulsifying Agents 526
15.2.3 Emulsifying Equipment 527
15.2.3.1 Mixers 527
15.2.3.2 Pressure Homogenisers 528
15.2.3.3 Hydroshear Homogenisers 530
15.2.3.4 Microfluidisers 530
15.2.3.5 Membrane Homogenisers 530
Contents XIX
15.2.3.6 Ultrasonic Homogenisers 530
15.2.3.7 Colloid Mills 531
15.2.4 Examples of Emulsification in Food Processing 532
15.2.4.1 Milk 532
15.2.4.2 Ice Cream Mix 533
15.2.4.3 Cream Liqueurs 533
15.2.4.4 Coffee/Tea Whiteners 533
15.2.4.5 Salad Dressings 534
15.2.4.6 Meat Products 534
15.2.4.7 Cake Products 535
15.2.4.8 Butter 535
15.2.4.9 Margarine and Spreads 536
15.3 Size Reduction (Crushing, Comminution, Grinding, Milling)
of Solids 537
15.3.1 Introduction 537
15.3.2 Size Reduction Equipment 540
15.3.2.1 Some Factors to Consider When Selecting Size Reduction
Equipment 540
15.3.2.2 Roller Mills (Crushing Rolls) 541
15.3.2.3 Impact (Percussion) Mills 544
15.3.2.4 Attrition Mills 546
15.3.2.5 Tumbling Mills 548
15.3.3 Examples of Size Reduction of Solids in Food Processing 550
15.3.3.1 Cereals 550
15.3.3.2 Chocolate 552
15.3.3.3 Coffee Beans 554
15.3.3.4 Oil Seeds and Nuts 554
15.3.3.5 Sugar Cane 555
References 556
Subject Index 559
XXI
Preface
There are many excellent texts available which cover the fundamentals of food
engineering, equipment design, modelling of food processing operations etc.
There are also several very good works in food science and technology dealing
with the chemical composition, physical properties, nutritional and microbiolog-
ical status of fresh and processed foods. This work is an attempt to cover the
middle ground between these two extremes. The objective is to discuss the tech-
nology behind the main methods of food preservation used in today’s food in-
dustry in terms of the principles involved, the equipment used and the changes
in physical, chemical, microbiological and organoleptic properties that occur
during processing. In addition to the conventional preservation techniques, new
and emerging technologies, such as high pressure processing and the use of
pulsed electric field and power ultrasound are discussed. The materials and
methods used in the packaging of food, including the relatively new field of ac-
tive packaging, are covered. Concerns about the safety of processed foods and
the impact of processing on the environment are addressed. Process control
methods employed in food processing are outlined. Treatments applied to water
to be used in food processing and the disposal of wastes from processing opera-
tions are described.
Chapter 1 covers the postharvest handling and transport of fresh foods and
preparatory operations, such as cleaning, sorting, grading and blanching, ap-
plied prior to processing. Chapters 2, 3 and 4 contain up-to-date accounts of
heat processing, evaporation, dehydration and freezing techniques used for food
preservation. In Chapter 5, the potentially useful, but so far little used process
of irradiation is discussed. The relatively new technology of high pressure pro-
cessing is covered in Chapter 6, while Chapter 7 explains the current status of
pulsed electric field, power ultrasound, and other new technologies. Recent de-
velopments in baking, extrusion cooking and frying are outlined in Chapter 8.
Chapter 9 deals with the materials and methods used for food packaging and
active packaging technology, including the use of oxygen, carbon dioxide and
ethylene scavengers, preservative releasers and moisture absorbers. In Chapter
10, safety in food processing is discussed and the development, implementation
and maintenance of HACCP systems outlined. Chapter 11 covers the various
types of control systems applied in food processing. Chapter 12 deals with envi-
Food Processing Handbook. Edited by James G. Brennan
Copyright © 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
ISBN: 3-527-30719-2
