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This standard aims to prescribe and guide the principles and method of accounting the inventories,
including: determination of the value of inventories and accounting it as expense; the marking-down of
inventories to suit the net realizable value and the method of calculating the value of inventories to serve
as basis for recording accounting books and making financial statements.
Standard No 2 - Inventories
Standard No. 2
INVENTORIES
GENERAL PROVISIONS
01. This standard aims to prescribe and guide the principles and method of accounting the inventories,
including: determination of the value of inventories and accounting it as expense; the marking-down of
inventories to suit the net realizable value and the method of calculating the value of inventories to serve
as basis for recording accounting books and making financial statements.
02. This standard shall apply to accounting inventories on the original price principle, except when other
prescribed accounting standards permit the application of other accounting methods to inventories.
03. For the purposes of this standard, the terms used herein are understood as follows:
Inventories: are assets which are:
a/ held for sale in the normal production and business period;
b/ in the on-going process of production and business;
c/ raw materials, materials, tools and instruments for use in the process of production and business or
provision of services.
Inventories consist of:
- Goods purchased for sale: goods in stock, purchased goods being transported en route, goods sent for
sale, goods sent for processing;
- Finished products in stock and finished products sent for sale;
- Unfinished products: uncompleted products and completed products not yet going through the
procedures for being put into stores of finished products;
- Raw materials, materials, tools and instruments in stock, sent for processing, and already purchased but
being transported en route;
- Costs of unfinished services.
Net realizable value means the estimated selling price of inventories in a normal production and business
period minus (-) the estimated cost for completing the products and the estimated cost needed for their
consumption.
Current price means a sum of money payable for the purchase of a similar kind of inventory on the date
the accounting balance sheet is made.
CONTENTS OF THE STANDARD
DETERMINATION OF THE VALUE OF INVENTORIES
04. Inventories are valued according to their original prices. Where the net realizable value is lower than
the original price, they must be valued according to the net realizable value.
Original prices of inventories
05 The original price of inventories consists of the purchasing cost, processing cost and other directly-
related costs incurred for having the inventories stored in the present place and conditions.
Purchasing cost
06. The purchasing cost of inventories consists of the buying price, non-refundable taxes, transportation
cost, loading and unloading cost, preservation cost incurred in the buying process and other costs directly
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Standard No 2 - Inventories
related to the purchase of the inventories. Trade discounts and reductions in the prices of purchased goods
due to their wrong specifications and/or inferior quality, shall be deducted from the purchasing cost.
Processing cost
07. The processing costs of inventories consist of those directly related to the manufactured products, such
as cost of direct labor, fixed and variable general production costs incurred in the process of turning raw
materials and materials into finished products.
Fixed general production costs means indirect production costs, which are often invariable regardless of
the volume of manufactured products, such as depreciation cost, maintenance cost of machinery,
equipment, workshops… and administrative management cost at production workshops.
Variable general production costs means indirect production costs, which often change directly or almost
directly according to the volume of manufactured products, such as costs of indirect raw materials and
materials, cost of indirect labor.
08. Fixed general production costs shall be allocated into the processing cost of each product unit on the
basis of the normal production capacity of machinery. Normal capacity is the average quantity of products
turned out under normal production conditions.
- Where the quantity of actually-manufactured products is higher than the normal capacity, the fixed
general production costs shall be allocated to each product unit according to actually incurred costs.
- Where the quantity of actually-manufactured products is lower than the normal capacity, the fixed
general production costs shall be allocated into the processing cost of each product unit only according to
the normal capacity. The unallocated amount of general production costs shall be recognized as
production and business expense in the period.
The variable general production costs shall be entirely allocated into the processing cost of each product
unit according to the actually incurred costs.
09. Where various kinds of products are manufactured in a single production process in the same duration
of time and the processing cost of each kind of product is not separately expressed, the processing cost
shall be allocated to those kinds of products according to appropriate and consistent norms in all
accounting periods.
Where by-products are turned out, their value shall be calculated according to the net realizable value and
subtracted from the processing cost already calculated for the principal products.
Other directly-related costs
10. Other directly-related costs shall be incorporated into the original prices of inventories, including costs
other than the purchasing cost and processing cost of inventories. For example, the original price of
finished products may consist of the product-designing cost for a particular order.
Costs not permitted to be incorporated in the original price of inventories
11. Costs not permitted to be incorporated into the original price of inventories, are:
a/ Costs of raw materials, materials, labor and other production and business costs incurred at a level
higher than normal;
b/ Costs of inventories preservation minus the inventories preservation cost needed for subsequent
production processes and the preservation cost prescribed in paragraph 06;
c/ Sale cost;
d/ Enterprise management costs.
Service provision cost
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Standard No 2 - Inventories
12. Service provision cost consists of personnel costs and other costs directly related to the service
provision, such as supervision cost and related general costs.
Personnel costs and other costs related to goods sale and enterprise management shall not be included in
the service provision cost.
METHOD OF CALCULATING THE VALUE OF INVENTORIES
13. The value of inventories shall be calculated according to one of the following methods:
a/ Specific identification method;
b/ Weighted average method;
c/ First-in, First-out method;
d/ Last-in, First-out method.
14. The specific identification method shall apply to enterprises having a few goods items or stable and
identifiable goods items.
15. By the weighted average method, the value of each kind of inventories shall be calculated according to
the average value of each similar kind of goods at the beginning of the period and the value of each kind
of inventories purchased or manufactured in the period. The average value may be computed either
according to periods or the time when a goods lot is warehoused, depending on the enterprise’s situation.
16. The First-in, First-out method shall apply upon the assumption that the first inventories purchased or
manufactured is the first inventories delivered, and the inventories left at the end of the period are those
purchased or produced at a time close to the end of the period. By this method, the value of the delivered
goods shall be computed according to the price of the lot of goods warehoused at the beginning of the
period or at a time shortly after the beginning of the period, the value of the inventories shall be computed
according to the price of the goods warehoused at the end of the period or at a time shortly before the end
of the period.
17. The Last-in First-out method shall apply upon the assumption that the most recently purchased or
manufactured inventories are delivered first, and the inventories left at the end of the period are those
which are purchased or produced earlier. By this method, the value of the delivered goods shall be
computed according to the price of the lot of goods warehoused most recently or shortly earlier; the value
of the inventories shall be computed according to the price of the goods warehoused at the beginning of
the period or shortly after the beginning of the period, which still remain in stock.
NET REALIZABLE VALUE AND SETTING UP OF THE INVENTORY PRICE DECREASE
RESERVE
18. The value of inventories cannot be fully recovered when they become damaged, outmoded, their
selling prices fall or the finishing and/or sale costs rise. The marking-down of inventories to the level
equal to the net realizable value is compliant with the principle that assets must not be shown at a value
higher than the realized value estimated from their sale or use.
19. At the end of the accounting period of the year, when the net realizable value of inventories is lower
than their original price, the reserve for inventory price decrease must be set up. The amount of the to be-
set up inventory price decrease reserve is the difference between the original price of inventories and their
net realizable value. The inventory price decrease reserve shall be set up for each kind of inventories. For
services incompletely provided, the inventory price decrease reserve shall be set up for each type of
service with different charges.
20. The estimation of the net realizable value of inventories must be based on reliable evidences gathered
at the time of estimation. Such estimation must take into account price fluctuations or costs directly
related to events occurring after the ending day of the fiscal year, which have been anticipated through
conditions existing at the time of estimation.
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Standard No 2 - Inventories
21. When estimating the net realizable value, the purpose of the storage of inventories must be taken into
account. For example, the net realizable value of the inventories reserved to ensure the performance of
uncancellable sale or service provision contracts must be based on the values inscribed in such contracts.
If the volume of inventories is bigger than that of goods needed for a contract, the net realizable value of
the difference between these two volumes shall be appraised on the basis of the estimated selling price.
22. Raw materials, materials, tools and instruments reserved for use in the manufacture of products must
not be valued lower than their original price if the products which have been manufactured with their
contributions are to be sold at prices equal to or higher than their production costs. Where there appear
decreases in the prices of raw materials, materials, tools and/or instruments but the production costs of
products are higher than their net realizable value, the raw materials, materials, tools and instruments left
in stock may have their value lowered to be equal to their net realizable value.
23. At the end of the accounting period of the subsequent year, a new appraisal of the net realizable value
of inventories by the end of such year must be conducted. Where at the end of the accounting period of
the current year, if the to be-set up reserve for inventory price decrease is lower than the inventory price
decrease reserve already set up at the end of the accounting period of the previous year, the difference
thereof must be added thereto (under the provisions in paragraph 24) in order to ensure that the value of
inventories shown on financial statements is computed according to the original price (if the original price
is lower than the net realizable value) or according to the net realizable value (if the original price is
higher than the net realizable value).
RECOGNITION OF COSTS
24. When selling inventories, the original price of goods sold shall be recognized as production and
business expense in the period in consistence with the recognized turnover related thereto. All the
difference between the higher inventory price decrease reserve to be set up at the end of the current year’s
accounting period and the lower inventory price decrease reserve already set up at the end of the previous
year’s accounting period, volumes of damaged and lost inventories, after subtracting the compensations
paid by individuals due to their liabilities, and unallocated general production costs, shall be recognized as
production and business expense in the period. Where the inventory price decrease reserve to be set up at
the end of the current year’s accounting period is lower than the inventory price decrease reserve already
set up at the end of the previous year’s accounting period, the difference thereof must be added and
recorded as decrease in production and business expense.
25. Recognition of the value of goods sold as expense incurred in the period must ensure the expense -
turnover matching principle.
26. Where some kinds of inventories are used for manufacture of fixed assets or use like self-
manufactured workshops, machinery and/or equipment, the original price of these inventories shall be
accounted into the fixed asset value.
PRESENTATION OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
27. In their financial statements, the enterprises must present:
a/ Accounting policies applied in the appraisal of inventories, including the method of computing the
value of inventories;
b/ The original prices of the total inventories and of each kind of inventories classified in a way suitable to
the enterprise;
c/ The value of the inventory price decrease reserve;
d/ The value re-included from the inventory price decrease reserve;
e/ Cases or events resulting in the addition to or re-inclusion from the inventory price decrease reserve;
f/ The book value of inventories (the original price minus (-) the inventory price decrease reserve) already
mortgaged or pledged for payable debts.
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Standard No 2 - Inventories
28. Where the enterprises compute the value of inventories by the Last-in, First-out method, their
financial statements must show the difference between the value of inventories presented in the
accounting balance sheet and:
a/ The period-end value of inventories, which is calculated by the First-in, First-out method (if this value
is lower than the period-end value of inventories calculated by the weighted average method as well as the
net realizable value); or
And the period-end value of inventories which is calculated by the weighted average method (if this value
is lower than the period-end value of inventories calculated by the First-in, Fist-out method as well as the
net realizable value); or
And the period-end value of inventories which is calculated according to the net realizable value (if this
value is lower than the value of inventories calculated by the First-in, First-out method and the weighted
average method); or
b/ The period-end current value of inventories on the date the accounting balance sheet is made (if this
value is lower than the net realizable value); or, and the net realizable value (if the period-end value of
inventories which is calculated according to the net realizable value is lower than the period-end value of
inventories which is calculated according to the current value on the date the accounting balance sheet is
made).
29. Presentation of inventories costs in the reports on the production and business results, which are
classified functionally.
30. Functional classification of costs means that inventories are presented in the section “Original price of
goods sold” in the business result reports, including the original price of goods sold, the inventory price
decrease reserve, damaged and lost volumes of inventories after subtracting the compensations paid by
individuals due to their liabilities, and unallocated general production costs.
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Standard No 3 – Tangible fixed assets
Standard No. 03
TANGIBLE FIXED ASSETS
GENERAL PROVISIONS
01. This standard aims to prescribe and guide the accounting principles and methods applicable to
tangible fixed assets, including criteria of tangible fixed assets, the time of recognition and determination
of initial value, costs incurred after initial recognition, determination of value after initial recognition,
depreciation, liquidation of tangible fixed assets and some other regulations serving as basis for recording
accounting books and making financial statements.
02. This standard applies to the accounting of tangible fixed assets, except where other accounting
standards permit the application of other accounting principles and methods to tangible fixed assets.
03. Where other accounting standards prescribe methods of determining and recognizing the initial value
of tangible fixed assets other than the methods defined in this standard, other contents of tangible fixed
asset accounting shall still comply with the regulations of this standard.
04. Enterprises must apply this standard even when they are affected by price changes, except otherwise
prescribed by State decisions related to the re-appraisal of tangible fixed assets.
05. For the purpose of this standard, the terms used herein are construed as follows:
Tangible fixed assets means assets in physical forms which are possessed by the enterprises for use in
production and business activities in conformity with the recognition criteria of tangible fixed assets.
Historical cost means all the costs incurred by the enterprises to acquire tangible fixed assets as of the
time of putting such assets into the ready-for-use state.
Depreciation means the systematic allocation of the depreciable value of tangible fixed assets throughout
the useful life of such assets.
Depreciable value means the historical cost of tangible fixed assets recorded on financial statements,
minus (-) the estimated liquidation value of such assets.
Useful life means the duration in which the tangible fixed assets produce their effect on production and
business, calculated by:
a/ The duration the enterprise expects to use the tangible fixed assets, or:
b/ The volume of products, or similar calculating units which the enterprise expects to obtain from the use
of assets.
Liquidation value means the value estimated to be obtained at the end of the useful life of the assets, after
subtracting the estimated liquidation cost.
Reasonable value means the value of assets, which may be exchanged among knowledgeable parties in
the par value exchange.
Residual value means the historical cost of tangible fixed assets after subtracting the accumulated
depreciation thereof.
Recoverable value means the value estimated to be obtained in future from the use of the assets, including
their liquidation value.
CONTENTS OF THE STANDARD
RECOGNITION OF TANGIBLE FIXED ASSETS
06. Criteria for recognition of tangible fixed assets:
To be recognized as tangible fixed assets, assets must meet simultaneously all the following four (4)
recognition criteria:
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Standard No 3 – Tangible fixed assets
a/ Future economic benefits will surely be obtained;
b/ Their historical cost has been determined in a reliable way;
c/ Their useful life is estimated at more than one year;
d/ They meet all value criteria according to current regulations.
07. Tangible asset accounting is classified by groups of assets of the same nature and use purposes in the
enterprises’ production and business operations, including:
a/ Houses and architectural objects;
b/ Machinery and equipment;
c/ Means of transport, conveyance equipment;
d/ Managerial equipment and instruments;
e/ Perennial tree garden, animals reared to labor for humans and to yield products.
f/ Other tangible fixed assets.
08. Tangible fixed assets often constitute a key component in the total assets and play an important role in
the reflection of the financial situation of enterprises. Therefore, the determination of an asset whether or
not to be recognized as tangible fixed asset or a production or business expense in the period shall greatly
affect the reporting of the enterprises’ operation and business results.
09. When determining the first criterion (prescribed in Section a, paragraph 06) of each tangible fixed
asset, the enterprises must determine the degree of certainty of the acquisition of future economic benefits,
on the basis of evidences available at the time of initial recognition, and must bear all related risks.
Though being unable to directly yield economic benefits like other tangible fixed assets, those assets used
for the purposes of ensuring production and business safety or protecting the environment are necessary
for enterprises to achieve more economic benefits from other assets. However, only if their historical cost
and that of related assets do not exceed the total value recoverable from them and other related assets shall
these assets be recognized as tangible fixed assets. For example, a chemical plant may have to install
equipment and carry out new chemical-storing and-preserving processes in order to comply with the
environmental protection requirements in the production and storage of toxic chemicals. Any related
installed accompanying fixed assets shall only be accounted as tangible fixed assets if without them the
enterprises would not be able to operate and sell their chemical products.
10. The second criterion (prescribed in Section b, paragraph 06) for recognizing tangible fixed assets is
often satisfied since the historical cost of the fixed assets has been already determined through
procurement, exchange, or self-construction.
11. When determining components of tangible fixed assets, the enterprises must apply the criteria of
tangible fixed asset on a case-by-case basis. The enterprises may consolidate secondary, separate parts,
such as molds, tools, swages, and apply the criteria of tangible fixed asset to such aggregate value.
Accessories and auxiliary equipment are often seen as movables and thereby accounted into use costs.
Major accessories and maintenance equipment shall be determined as tangible fixed assets when the
enterprises estimate that their useful life would last for over one year. If they are only used in association
with tangible fixed assets irregularly, they shall be accounted as separate tangible fixed assets and
depreciated over a period shorter than the useful life of related tangible fixed assets.
12. In each specific case, the total cost of assets may be allocated to their components and separately
accounted for each component. This case shall apply when each component of an asset has a different
useful life, or contributes to creating for the enterprise economic benefits which are assessed according to
different prescribed criteria so it may use different depreciation rates and methods. For example, an
aircraft body and engine should be accounted as two separate tangible fixed assets with different
depreciation rates if they have different useful lives.
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Standard No 3 – Tangible fixed assets
DETERMINATION OF INITIAL VALUE
13. Tangible fixed assets must have their initial value determined according to their historical cost
DETERMINATION OF HISTORICAL COST OF TANGIBLE FIXED ASSETS ON A CASE-BY-
CASE BASIS
Procured tangible fixed assets
14. The historical cost of a procured tangible fixed asset consists of the buying price (minus (-) trade
discounts and price reductions), taxes (excluding reimbursed tax amounts) and expenses directly related to
the putting of the assets into the ready-for-use state, such as ground preparation expense; initial
transportation, loading and unloading expense; installation and trial operation expense (minus (-) amounts
recovered from products and wastes turned out from trial operation); expert cost and other directly-related
expenses.
For tangible fixed assets formed from construction investment by contractual mode, their historical costs
are the settled costs of the invested construction projects, other directly-related expenses and registration
fee (if any).
15. Where procured tangible fixed assets are houses, architectural objects associated with the land use
right, the land use right value must be separately determined and recognized as intangible fixed asset.
16. Where procured tangible fixed assets are paid by deferred payment mode, their historical cost shall be
shown at the buying price promptly paid at the purchase time. The difference between the payable total
amount and the promptly-paid buying price shall be accounted as expense in the payment period, except
where such difference is included into the historical cost of tangible fixed assets (capitalization) according
to the regulations of the accounting standard “Borrowing expenses.”
17. Incurred costs, such as administrative management cost, general production costs, trial operation cost
and other costs…, if not directly related to the procurement and the putting of fixed assets into the ready-
for-use state, shall not be included into the historical cost of tangible fixed assets. Initial losses caused by
the machinery’s failure to operate as planned shall be accounted into production and business expenses in
the period.
Self-constructed or self-made tangible fixed assets
18. The historical cost of a self-constructed or self-made tangible fixed asset is its actual cost plus (+) the
installation and trial operation cost. Where the enterprises turn the products made by themselves into fixed
assets, the historical costs shall be the production costs of such products plus (+) the expenses directly
related to the putting of the fixed assets into the ready-for-use state. In these cases, all internal profits must
not be included in the historical cost of these assets. Unreasonable expenses, such as wasted materials and
supplies, labor or other costs in excess of the normal levels arising in the self-construction or self-
generating process must not be included in the historical cost of tangible fixed assets.
Financial-leasing tangible fixed assets
19. Where tangible fixed assets are leased in the form of financial lease, their historical cost shall be
determined according to the regulations of the accounting standard “Asset lease.”
Tangible fixed assets purchased in the exchange form
20. The historical cost of a tangible fixed asset purchased in the form of exchange for a dissimilar tangible
fixed asset or other assets shall be determined according to the reasonable value of the received tangible
fixed assets, or that of the exchanged ones, after adjusting the cash amounts or cash equivalents which are
additionally paid or received.
21. The historical cost of a tangible fixed asset purchased in the form of exchange for similar one, or
possibly formed through its sale in exchange for the right to own similar ones (similar assets are those
with similar utilities, in the same business field and of equivalent value). In both cases no profit or loss is
recognized in the exchange process. The historical cost of the received fixed asset shall be the residual
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Standard No 3 – Tangible fixed assets
value of the exchanged one. For example, the exchange of tangible fixed assets is similar to exchange of
machinery, equipment, means of transport, service establishments or other tangible fixed assets.
Tangible fixed assets augmented from other sources
22. The historical cost of a tangible fixed asset which is donated or presented shall be initially recognized
according to the initial reasonable value. Where it is not recognized according to the initial reasonable
value, the enterprises may recognize it according to the nominal value plus (+) the expenses directly
related to the putting of the assets into the ready-for-use state.
COSTS INCURRED AFTER INITIAL RECOGNITION
23. The costs incurred after the initial recognition of tangible fixed assets shall be recorded as increase in
their historical cost if these costs are certain to augment future economic benefits obtained from the use of
these assets. Those incurred costs which fail to meet this requirement must be recognized as production
and business expenses in the period.
24. The costs incurred after the initial recognition of tangible fixed assets shall be recorded as increase in
their historical cost if these costs have practically improved the current conditions of the assets as
compared to their original standard conditions, such as:
a/ Replacing parts of the tangible fixed assets, thereby prolonging their useful life or increasing their use
capacity;
b/ Renovating parts of the tangible fixed assets, thereby considerably improving the quality of
manufactured products;
c/ Applying new technological production processes, thereby reducing the operational costs of the assets.
25. The repair and maintenance costs of tangible fixed assets for the purpose of restoring or sustaining
their capability to bring about economic benefits as in their original operating conditions shall be included
into production and business expenses in the period.
26. The accounting of the costs incurred after the initial recognition of tangible fixed assets must be based
on each particular case and the recoverability of these costs. When the residual value of the tangible fixed
assets has already been composed of reductions in economic benefits, those costs incurred afterwards to
restore economic benefits from these fixed assets shall be included in the historical cost of the fixed assets
if their residual value does not exceed their recoverable value. Where the buying price of a tangible fixed
asset has already covered the enterprises’ obligation to incur those costs for putting the assets into the
ready-for-use state, the capitalization of the costs incurred afterwards must be also based on the
recoverability of these costs. For example, an enterprise buys a house which needs some repair before it
can be used. The house repair cost shall be included in the historical cost of the asset if such cost is
recoverable from the future use of the house.
27. Where some parts of tangible fixed assets need to be replaced on a regular basis, they shall be
accounted as independent fixed assets if they satisfy all the four (4) criteria of a tangible fixed asset. For
example, air-conditioners in a house may be replaced many times throughout the useful life of the house.
The costs incurred in the replacement or restoration of these air-conditioners shall be accounted as an
independent asset and the value of the replaced air-conditioners shall be recorded as a decrease.
DETERMINATION OF VALUE AFTER INITIAL RECOGNITION
28. After initial recognition, during their use process, tangible fixed assets shall be determined according
to their historical costs, accumulated depreciation and residual values. Where they are re-appraised
according to the State’s regulations, their historical cost, accumulated depreciation and residual value
must be adjusted according to the re-appraisal results. The difference resulting from the re-valuation of
tangible fixed assets shall be handled and accounted according to the State’s regulations
DEPRECIATION
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Standard No 3 – Tangible fixed assets
29. The depreciable value of tangible fixed assets shall be allocated systematically during their useful life.
The depreciation method must be suited to the economic benefits yielded by the assets to the enterprises.
The depreciated amount of each period shall be accounted into the production and business expenses in
the period, unless they are included in the value of other assets, such as depreciation of tangible fixed
assets used for activities in the development stage is a cost component of the historical cost of intangible
fixed assets (according to the regulations of the standard intangible fixed assets), or the depreciation cost
of tangible fixed assets used in the process of self-constructing or self-making other assets.
30. Economic benefits yielded by tangible fixed assets shall be gradually exploited by the enterprises
through the use of these assets. Nevertheless, other factors, like technical backwardness, wear-and-tear of
these fixed assets due to their non-use, often cause reductions in the economic benefits which the
enterprises expect these assets would bring about. Therefore, when determining the useful life of tangible
fixed assets, the following factors must be taken into account:
a/ The extent of use of such asset, estimated by the enterprise. The extent of use is assessed according to
the estimated capacity or output;
b/ The extent of wear-and-tear, depending on the related elements in the asset’s use process, such as the
number of working shifts, the enterprise’s repair and maintenance of the asset as well as its upkeep when
not in operation;
c/ Invisible wear-and-tear arising from the replacement or renovation of the technological chain or
changes in the market demand for the products or service turned out by the asset;
d/ Legal constraints in the asset use, such as the date of expiry of the contract of financial-leasing fixed
assets.
31. The useful life of tangible fixed assets shall be determined by the enterprises mainly on the expected
use extent of the assets. However, due to the asset management policy of the enterprises, the estimated
useful life of fixed assets may be shorter than their actual useful life. Therefore, the estimation of the
useful life of a tangible fixed asset must be also based on the enterprise’s experiences on assets of the
same type.
32. Three methods of depreciation of tangible fixed assets are:
- Straight-line depreciation method;
- Declining-balance depreciation method; and
- Units-of-output depreciation method.
By the straight-line depreciation method, the annual depreciation amount is kept unchanged throughout
the useful life of assets. By the declining-balance depreciation method, the annual depreciation amount
gradually declines throughout the useful life of assets. The units-of-output depreciation method is based
on the estimated total quantity of product units the assets may turn out. The depreciation method applied
by the enterprises to each tangible fixed asset must be implemented consistently, except where appear
changes in the mode of its use.
The enterprises must not continue depreciating tangible fixed assets which have been entirely depreciated
but still used for production and business operations.
RECONSIDERATION OF USEFUL LIFE
33. The useful life of tangible fixed assets must be reconsidered periodically, usually at the end of the
fiscal year. If there is any considerable change in the estimation of the useful life of assets, the
depreciation rate must be adjusted.
34. In the process of using fixed assets, once it has been determined with certainty that the useful life is no
longer suitable, it must be adjusted together with the depreciation rate for the current year and subsequent
years, which shall be expounded in the financial statements. For example: The useful life may be
extended as a result of the improvement of the asset’s conditions as compared with their initial standard
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Standard No 3 – Tangible fixed assets
conditions; technical modifications or changes in the demands for products produced by a machine may
also shorten the useful life of the assets.
35. The tangible fixed asset repair and maintenance regime may help prolong the actual useful life or
increase the estimated liquidation value of assets but the enterprises must not change the depreciation rate
of these assets.
RECONSIDERATION OF THE DEPRECIATION METHOD
36. The method of depreciation of tangible fixed assets must be reconsidered periodically, usually at the
end of the fiscal year; if there is any change in the way of using the assets, which brings about benefits for
the enterprises, the depreciation method and rate may be changed for the current year and subsequent
years.
SALE AND LIQUIDATION OF TANGIBLE FIXED ASSETS
37. Tangible fixed assets which are liquidated or sold shall be recorded as a decrease.
38. Profits or losses arising from liquidation or sale of tangible fixed assets shall be determined as
differences between incomes and liquidation or sale costs plus (+) the residual value of the tangible fixed
assets. These profits or losses shall be recognized as an income or an expense on the reports on the
business results in the period.
PRESENTATION OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
39. In their financial statements, the enterprises must present the following information on each type of
tangible fixed asset:
a/ Method of determination of the historical cost of the tangible fixed asset;
b/ Method of depreciation, the useful life or depreciation rate;
c/ The historical cost, accumulated depreciation and residual value at the beginning of the year and at the
end of the period;
d/ A written explanation of the financial statement (the section Tangible Fixed Assets) must cover the
following information:
- The historical cost of the tangible fixed asset, any increase and/or decrease in the period;
- The depreciated amount in the period, any increase, decrease and the accumulated amount by the end of
the period;
- The residual value of the tangible fixed assets mortgaged or pledged for loans;
- Investment costs of unfinished capital constructions;
- Commitments to the future purchase or sale of tangible fixed assets of big value;
- The residual value of tangible fixed assets temporarily not in use;
- The historical cost of fully-depreciated tangible fixed assets which are still in use;
- The residual value of tangible fixed assets awaiting liquidation;
- Other changes in tangible fixed assets.
40. The determination of the depreciation method and the estimation of the useful life of tangible fixed
assets bear a purely presumptive nature. Therefore, the presentation of the applied depreciation methods
and the estimated useful life of tangible fixed assets permits the users of financial statements to examine
the correctness of the policies set out by the enterprise management and have basis for comparison with
other enterprises.
41. The enterprises must present the nature and impact of the changes in accounting estimation which bear
a crucial influence in the current accounting period or subsequent periods. The information must be
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Standard No 3 – Tangible fixed assets
presented when there arise changes in the accounting estimates related to the already liquidated or to be-
liquidated tangible fixed assets, their useful life and depreciation methods.
12
Standard No 4 – Intangible fixed assets
Standard No. 04
INTANGIBLE FIXED ASSETS
GENERAL PROVISIONS
01. This standard aims to prescribe and guide the principles and methods of accounting intangible fixed
assets, including: criteria of intangible fixed assets, time of recognition and determination of the initial
value, costs incurred after initial recognition, determination of the value after initial recognition,
depreciation, liquidation of intangible fixed assets and some other regulations serving as basis for
recording accounting books and making financial statements.
02. This standard applies to the accounting of intangible fixed assets, except where other standards permit
the application of other accounting principles and methods to intangible fixed assets.
03. A number of intangible fixed assets may be contained within or on physical objects like compact discs
(in cases where computer software is recorded in compact discs), legal documents (in cases of licenses or
invention patents). In order to determine whether or not an asset containing both intangible and tangible
elements is accounted according to the regulations of the tangible fixed asset standard or intangible fixed
asset standard, the enterprises must base themselves on the determination of which elements being
important. For example, if computer software is an integral part of the hardware of a computer, without it
the computer cannot operate, such software is a part of the computer and thus it is considered a part of
tangible fixed asset. In cases where software is a part detachable from the related hardware, it is an
intangible fixed asset.
04. This standard prescribes the expenses related to the advertisement, personnel training, enterprise
establishment, research and development. Research and development activities oriented at the knowledge
development may create an asset in a physical form (i.e. models) but the physical element only plays a
secondary role as compared with the intangible component being knowledge embedded in such asset.
05. Once the financial-leasing intangible fixed assets have been initially recognized, the lessees must
account them in the finance-leasing contracts according to this standard. The rights under licensing
contracts to films, video programs, plays, manuscripts, patents and copyright shall fall within the scope of
this standard.
06. For the purpose of this standard, the terms used herein are construed as follows:
Asset is a resource which is:
a/ controllable by the enterprise; and
b/ expected to yield future economic benefits for the enterprise.
Intangible fixed assets mean assets which have no physical form but the value of which can be determined
and which are held and used by the enterprises in their production, business, service provision or leased to
other subjects in conformity with the recognition criteria of intangible fixed assets.
Research means a planned initial survey activity carried out to obtain new scientific or technical
understanding and knowledge.
Development means an activity of applying research results or scientific knowledge to a plan or design so
as to make products of a new kind or to substantially renovate materials, tools, products, processes,
systems or new services before their commercial production or use.
Historical cost means all costs incurred by the enterprises to acquire intangible fixed assets as of the time
of putting these assets into use as expected.
Depreciation means the systematic allocation of the depreciable value of intangible asset throughout their
useful life.
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Standard No 4 – Intangible fixed assets
Depreciable value means the historical cost of an intangible asset recorded in the financial statement
minus (-) the estimated liquidation value of the asset.
Useful life means the duration in which intangible fixed assets promote their effects on production and
business, calculated by:
a/ The time for which the enterprise expects to use the intangible asset; or
b/ The quantity of products, or similar calculating units which the enterprise expects to obtain from the
use of the assets.
Liquidation value means the value estimated to be acquired upon the expiry of the useful life of an asset,
after subtracting (-) the estimated liquidation cost.
Residual value means the historical value of an intangible fixed asset after subtracting (-) the accumulated
depreciation of the asset.
Reasonable value means the value of assets which may be exchanged between the knowledgeable parties
in the par value exchange.
Operating market means a market which meets simultaneously all the following three (3) conditions:
a/ Products sold on the market are homogenous;
b/ Purchaser and seller may find each other at any time;
c/ Prices are made public.
INTANGIBLE FIXED ASSETS
07. The enterprises often make investment in order to acquire intangible resources such as the right to use
land for a definite term, computer software, patent, copyright, aquatic resource exploitation permit, export
quota, import quota, right concession permit, business relations with customers or suppliers, customers’
loyalty, market shares, the marketing right…
08. In order to determine whether or not intangible resources specified in paragraph 07 meet the definition
of an intangible fixed asset, the following factors shall be considered: Identifiability, resource
controllability and certainty of future economic benefits. If an intangible resource fails to satisfy the
intangible fixed asset definition, the costs incurred in the formation of such intangible resource must be
recognized as production and business expenses in the period or as pre-paid expenses. Particularly for
those intangible resources the enterprises have acquired through enterprise merger of re-purchase
character, they shall be recognized as goodwill on the date of arising of the purchase operation (under the
regulations in paragraph 46).
Identifiability
09. Intangible fixed assets must be separately identifiable so that they can be clearly distinguished from
goodwill. Goodwill arising from the enterprise merger of re-purchase character is shown with a payment
made by the asset purchaser in order so as to possibly obtain future economic benefits.
10. An intangible fixed asset is considered identifiable when the enterprises may lease, sell or exchange it
or acquire concrete future economic benefits therefrom. Those assets which can only generate future
economic benefits when combined with other assets shall be still seen as separately identifiable if the
enterprises can determine with certainty future economic benefits to be brought about by such assets.
Controllability
11. An enterprise is in control of an asset if it has the right to acquire future economic benefits yielded by
such asset and, at the same time, is able to limit other subjects’ access to these benefits. The enterprise’s
controllability of future economic benefits from intangible fixed assets, often derives from legal rights.
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Standard No 4 – Intangible fixed assets
12. Market knowledge and expertise may bring about future economic benefits. The enterprise may
control these benefits if they have legal right, for example: Copyright, aquatic resource exploitation
permit.
13. If an enterprise has a contingent of skilled employees and through training, it may ascertain that
improvement of their employees’ knowledge would bring about future economic benefits, but it is unable
to control these economic benefits, therefore the enterprise cannot recognize such as an intangible fixed
asset. Leadership talent and professional techniques shall not be recognized as intangible fixed assets
except where these assets are secured with legal rights to use them and acquire future economic benefits
and, at the same time, meet all the requirements of the intangible fixed asset definition and recognition
criteria.
14. For enterprises which have customers’ name lists or market shares, if they have neither legal rights nor
other measures to protect or control economic benefits from the relations with customers and their loyalty,
they must not recognize these as intangible fixed assets.
Future economic benefits
15. Future economic benefits yielded by intangible fixed assets for the enterprises may include: Turnover
increase, saved costs, or other benefits originating from the use of intangible fixed assets.
CONTENTS OF THE STANDARD
RECOGNITION AND DETERMINATION OF INITIAL VALUE
16. To be recognized as intangible fixed asset, an intangible asset must simultaneously satisfy:
- The definition of an intangible fixed asset; and
- Four (4) recognition criteria below:
+ The certainty to acquire future economic benefits brought about by the asset;
+ The asset’s historical cost must be determined in a reliable way;
+ The useful life is estimated to last for over one year;
+ All value criteria prescribed by current regulations are met.
17. The enterprises must determine the degree of certainty to acquire future economic benefits through
using reasonable and grounded assumptions on the economic conditions which will exist throughout the
useful life of the assets.
18. Intangible fixed assets must have their initial value determined according to their historical cost.
DETERMINATION OF HISTORICAL COST OF INTANGIBLE FIXED ASSETS IN EACH CASE
Purchase of separate intangible fixed assets
19. The historical cost of a separately-purchased intangible fixed asset consists of the buying price (minus
(-) trade discounts or price reductions), taxes (excluding reimbursed tax amounts) and expenses directly
related to the putting of the asset into use as planned.
20. Where the land use right is purchased together with houses and architectural objects affixed on the
land, its value must be separately determined and recognized as intangible fixed asset.
21. Where a procured intangible asset is paid by deferred payment mode, its historical cost shall be shown
at the purchasing price which should have been promptly paid at the time of purchase. The difference
between the total amount payable and the promptly-paid purchase price shall be accounted into the
production and business expense according to the payment period, except where such difference is
included in the historical cost of the intangible asset (capitalization) under the regulations of the
accounting standard “Costs of borrowing.”
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Standard No 4 – Intangible fixed assets
22. If an intangible fixed asset is formed from the exchange involving payment accompanied with
vouchers related to the capital ownership of the establishment, its historical cost is the reasonable value of
vouchers issued in relation to capital ownership.
Purchase of intangible fixed assets through enterprise merger
23. The historical cost of an intangible fixed asset formed from the process of enterprise merger of re-
purchase character is the reasonable value of such asset on the date of purchase (the date of enterprise
merger).
24. The enterprises must determine the historical cost of intangible fixed assets in a reliable way for
separate recognition of these assets.
The reasonable value may be:
- The price posted up on the operating market;
- The price of the operation of trading in similar intangible fixed assets.
25. If the operating market for assets does not exist, the historical costs of intangible fixed assets shall be
equal to the amounts the enterprises should have paid on the date of purchase of the fixed assets under the
condition that such operation is carried out objectively on the basis of available reliable information. In
this case, the enterprises should consider carefully the results of these operations in correlation with
similar assets.
26. Upon enterprise merger, intangible fixed assets shall be recognized as follows:
a/ The purchaser shall recognize assets as intangible fixed assets if they meet the intangible fixed asset
definition and recognition criteria specified in paragraphs 16 and 17, even if such intangible fixed assets
were not recognized in the financial statements of the asset seller;
b/ If an intangible asset is purchased through enterprise merger of re-purchase character but its historical
cost cannot be determined reliably, the asset shall not be recognized as a separate intangible fixed asset
but accounted as goodwill (under the regulations in paragraph 46).
27. Where no operating market exists for intangible fixed assets purchased through enterprise merger of
re-purchase character, the historical cost of intangible fixed assets shall be the value at which they do not
create negative-value goodwill which arises on the date of enterprise merger.
Intangible fixed assets being the right to use land for a definite term
28. The historical cost of an intangible fixed asset is the right to use land for a definite term when the land
is allocated or the payment made when receiving the land use right lawfully transferred from other
persons, or the land use right value contributed to joint-venture capital.
29. Where the land use right is transferred together with the purchase of houses and/or architectural
objects on the land, the value of houses and/or architectural objects must be determined separately and
recognized as tangible fixed assets.
Intangible fixed assets allocated by the state or donated or presented
30. The historical cost of an intangible fixed asset which is allocated by the State, donated or presented, is
determined according to the initial reasonable value plus (+) the expenses directly related to the putting of
the assets into use as planned.
Intangible fixed assets purchased in the form of exchange
31. The historical cost of an intangible fixed asset purchased in the form of exchange for a dissimilar
intangible or another asset is determined according to the reasonable value of the received intangible fixed
asset or equal to the reasonable value of the exchanged asset, after adjusting the cash amounts or cash
equivalents additionally received or paid.
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Standard No 4 – Intangible fixed assets
32. The historical cost of an intangible fixed asset purchased in the form of exchange for a similar
intangible fixed one, or possibly formed through its sale in exchange for the right to own a similar assets
(similar asset are those with similar utilities, in the same business field and of equivalent value). In both
cases, no profit or loss is recognized in the exchange process. The historical cost of the received intangible
fixed asset is equal to the residual value of the exchanged intangible fixed asset.
Goodwill created from within the enterprises
33. Goodwill created from within the enterprises shall not be recognized as assets.
34. Costs incurred to generate future economic benefits but not form intangible fixed assets because they
fail to satisfy the definition and recognition criteria in this standard but to create goodwill within the
enterprises. The goodwill created within the enterprises shall not be recognized as assets since they are not
identifiable resources, nor appraisable in a reliable way nor controllable by the enterprises.
35. The difference between the market value of an enterprise and the value of its net asset value recorded
on the financial statement, which is determined at a certain point of time, shall not be recognized as an
intangible fixed asset controlled by the enterprise.
Intangible fixed assets created from within the enterprises
36. In order to assess whether or not an intangible asset created from within an enterprise on the date of
arising of the operation meets the intangible fixed asset definition and recognition criteria, the enterprise
must divide the asset-forming process into:
a/ The research stage; and
b/ The development stage.
37. If the enterprise cannot distinguish the research stage from the development stage of an internal
intangible asset-creating project, it must account all incurred costs related to such project as expenses so
as to determine the business results in the period.
Research stage
38. All costs incurred in the research stage shall not be recognized as intangible fixed assets but as
production and business expenses in the period.
39. Examples of activities in the research stage:
a/ Activities of researching into and developing new knowledge, and activities of exploring, evaluating
and selecting final options;
b/ The application of research results, or other knowledge;
c/ The exploration of alternative methods for materials, tools, products, processes, services;
d/ Formulas, designs, evaluation and final selection of alternative methods for materials, tools, products,
processes, systems, services, new or further improved.
Development stage
40. Intangible assets created in the development stage shall be recognized as intangible fixed assets if they
meet all the following seven (7) conditions:
a/ Their technical feasibility assures the finishing and putting of the intangible assets into use as planned
or for sale;
b/ The enterprises intend to finish the intangible assets for use or sale;
c/ The enterprises are capable of using or selling the intangible assets;
d/ The intangible assets must generate future economic benefits;
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Standard No 4 – Intangible fixed assets
e/ There are adequate technical, financial and other resources for completion of the development stage,
sale or use of such intangible assets;
f/ Being capable of determining with certainty all costs in the development stage for creating the
intangible assets;
g/ They are estimated to meet all criteria for use duration and value prescribed for intangible fixed assets.
41. Examples of development activities:
a/ Designing, constructing and experimenting prototypes or models before they are put into production or
use;
b/ Designing tools, molds, jigs and swages related to new technologies;
c/ Designing, constructing and operating economically infeasible trial workshops for commercial
production operations;
d/ Designing, developing and manufacturing on a trial basis substitute materials, tools, products,
processes, systems and services, new or improved.
42. Trademarks, distribution right, customers’ name list and similar items formed from within the
enterprises shall not be recognized as intangible fixed assets.
Historical costs of intangible fixed assets created from within the enterprises
43. Intangible fixed assets created from within the enterprises shall be initially appraised according to
their historical costs consisting of all costs incurred from the time the intangible assets satisfy the
intangible fixed asset definition and recognition criteria prescribed in paragraphs 16, 17 and 40 until they
are put into use. The costs incurred before this point of time must be included in production and business
expenses in the period.
44. The historical cost of an intangible fixed asset created from within an enterprise consists of all directly
related expenses or allocated according to rational and consistent norms at all stages from designing,
construction, trial production to preparation for putting the asset into use as planned.
The historical cost of an intangible fixed asset created from within the enterprises consists of:
a/ Costs of raw materials, materials or services already used in the creation of the intangible fixed assets;
b/ Salaries, wages and other expenses related to the hiring of employees personally involved in the
creation of such asset;
c/ Other expenses directly related to the creation of the asset, such as expenses for registration of legal
rights, depreciation of patent and license used in the creation of such asset;
d/ General production costs allocated into the asset according to rational and consistent norms (for
example: allocation of the depreciation of workshops, machinery, equipment, insurance premiums, and
rents of workshops and equipment).
45. The following costs must not be included in the historical cost of intangible fixed assets created from
within the enterprises:
a/ Sale cost, enterprise management cost and general production costs not directly related to the putting of
the assets into use;
b/ Unreasonable expenses such as those for wasted raw materials and materials, labor and other expenses
in excess of the normal level;
c/ Cost of training of employees to operate the assets.
RECOGNITION OF COSTS
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Standard No 4 – Intangible fixed assets
46. Those costs related to intangible assets must be recognized as production and business expenses in the
period or pre-paid expenses, except the following cases:
a/ Costs of creating part of the historical cost of an intangible fixed asset satisfying the intangible fixed
asset definition and recognition criteria (prescribed from paragraph 16 to 44).
b/ Intangible assets formed from the process of enterprise merger of re-purchase character, which fail to
satisfy the intangible fixed asset definition and recognition criteria, these costs (included in the asset re-
purchase expenses) shall form part of the goodwill (including cases where goodwill bear a negative value)
on the date of decision of enterprise merger.
47. Those costs incurred to yield future economic benefits for the enterprises but not recognized as
intangible fixed assets, shall be recognized as production and business expenses in the period, excluding
those costs specified in paragraph 48.
48. Those costs incurred to generate future economic benefits for the enterprises, including enterprise
establishment cost, personnel-training cost and advertising cost incurred before the newly-set up
enterprises start to operate, costs for the research stage, relocation cost, shall be recognized as production
and business expenses in the period or gradually allocated into production and business expenses in the
maximum period of three years.
49. Costs related to intangible assets, which have been recognized by the enterprises as costs of
determining the business operation results in the previous period, shall not be re-recognized as part of the
historical cost of intangible fixed assets.
COST INCURRED AFTER INITIAL RECOGNITION
50. Costs related to intangible fixed assets, which are incurred after initial recognition, must be recognized
as production and business expenses in the period; if they meet simultaneously the two following
conditions, they shall be included into the historical costs of intangible fixed assets:
a/ These costs can help intangible fixed assets generate more future economic benefits than the original
operation evaluation;
b/ These costs are appraised in a certain way and associated with a specific intangible asset.
51. Those costs which are related to intangible fixed assets and incurred after initial recognition shall be
recognized as production and business expenses in the period, except when these costs are associated with
a specific intangible fixed asset and help increase economic benefits from such asset.
52. Those costs which are incurred after the initial recognition and related to trademarks, distribution
right, customers’ name list and items of similar nature (including those purchased from outside or created
from within the enterprise) shall be always recognized as production and business expenses in the period.
DETERMINATION OF VALUE AFTER INITIAL RECOGNITION
53. After initial recognition, in their use process, the intangible fixed assets shall be determined according
to their historical cost, accumulated depreciation and residual value.
DEPRECIATION
Depreciation period
54. The depreciable value of an intangible fixed asset must be systematically allocated throughout its
estimated reasonable useful life. The depreciation period of an intangible asset shall not exceed 20 years.
Depreciation shall start from the time the intangible fixed asset is put into use.
55. When determining the useful life of an intangible fixed asset as basis for calculating depreciation, the
following factors must be taken into account:
a/ The estimated usage of the asset;
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Standard No 4 – Intangible fixed assets
b/ The life circle of products and general information on the estimates related to the useful life of identical
types of fixed assets which are used under similar conditions.
c/ Technical or technological obsoleteness;
d/ Stability of the sector using this asset and the change in the market demand for products or the
provision of services brought about by such asset;
e/ Projected activities of existing or potential competitors;
f/ Necessary maintenance cost;
g/ The asset control period, legal constraints and other constraints in the process of using the asset;
h/ The dependence of the useful life of the intangible fixed asset on other assets in the enterprise.
56. For computer software and other intangible fixed assets which may become technically obsolete
rapidly, their useful life is often shorter.
57. In some cases, the useful life of intangible fixed assets may exceed 20 years upon reliable evidences
but must be specified. In this case, the enterprises must:
a/ Depreciate the intangible fixed assets according to their most accurately-estimated useful life;
b/ Justify the reasons for the estimation of the assets’ useful life in the financial statements.
58. If the control of future economic benefits from intangible fixed assets is made possible by virtue of
legal rights granted within a given period, the useful life of the intangible fixed assets shall not exceed the
effective time of the legal rights, except when such rights are extended.
59. Economic and legal factors affecting the useful life of intangible fixed assets include: (1) Economic
factors decisive to the period in which future economic benefits are obtained; (2) Legal factors restricting
the period during which the enterprise controls these economic benefits. The useful life is a period shorter
than the above-said periods.
Depreciation methods
60. The depreciation methods applicable to intangible fixed assets must reflect the mode of recovering
economic benefits from such intangible fixed assets of the enterprises. The depreciation method used for
each intangible fixed asset shall apply uniformly in many periods and may be changed when there appears
a significant change in the enterprise’s mode of recovering economic benefits. The depreciation cost for
each period must be recognized as a production and business expense, unless it is included in the value of
other assets.
61. There are three (3) depreciation methods for intangible fixed assets, including:
Straight-line depreciation method;
Declining-balance depreciation method;
Units-of-output depreciation method.
- By to the straight-line depreciation method, the annual depreciated amount is kept unchanged throughout
the intangible fixed asset’s useful life.
- According to the declining-balance method, the annual depreciated amount gradually declines
throughout the asset’s useful life.
- The units-of-output method is based on the estimated total quantity of products the asset will create.
Liquidation value
62. An intangible fixed asset has a liquidation value when:
a/ There is a third party agreeing to re-purchase the asset at the end of its useful life; or
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