Battery Operated Devices & System
This chapter aims at providing an overview of products and systems using
batteries. Here, the term product indicates any device – small or large, portable
or not – powered by a battery. The term system indicates a large installation,
such as an energy storage plant to back up an electricity grid, or an extended
sensor network.
viii
Preface
A number of handbooks are available to people working in the battery field, where
batteries are the main subject and their applications are treated in much less detail.
Conversely, there are no books dealing with the large spectrum of applications
powered by batteries. In other words, although some books cover specific topics,
for example portable devices, electric vehicles, energy storage, no books that aim
to summarize all battery applications have thus far been published.
This book aims at bridging this gap, as many applications are reported in detail
and others are mentioned, whereas less emphasis is put on batteries. However,
basic characteristics of batteries and information on the latest developments are
enclosed in a dedicated chapter. As is obvious, a 400-page single-author book
cannot be as exhaustive as a multi-author large handbook. Nevertheless, the reader
may find here, in addition to data on many applications, links to further literature
through the many references that have been included. For researchers, teachers and
graduate students interested in devices and systems drawing power from batteries,
this book will be a useful information source.
In Chapter 1, all applications in the portable and industrial areas are intro-
duced. Some market considerations follow, with details on the most important
sectors, and a forecast to 2016 for portable devices is enclosed.
In Chapter 2, basic characteristics of all primary and secondary batteries used
in the applications described are reviewed. The most recent trends, especially
for the ubiquitous lithium ion batteries, are mentioned.
In Chapter 3, portable applications, for example mobile phones, notebooks,
cameras, camcorders, several medical instruments, power tools, GPS receivers,
are described with details on their electronic aspects. Particular emphasis is put
on the devices’ power consumption and management for their implications on
battery life and device runtime. The basic features of some electronic compo-
nents, for example microprocessors, voltage regulators and displays, are pre-
sented for a better understanding of their energy requirements. Battery
management is also dealt with in detail, particularly in so far as the charging
methods are concerned. The criteria of battery choice are stressed.
Chapter 4, on industrial applications, is the largest one, as it includes aerospace,
telecommunications, emergency systems, load levelling, energy storage, different
meters, data loggers, oil drilling, oceanography, meteorology, robotics, etc. The
final part of this section is devoted to wireless connectivity, that is Wi-Fi, Blue-
tooth and Zigbee, exploited in many portable and industrial applications.
Chapter 5 deals with battery usage in vehicular applications. For their specific
interest, these industrial applications are described in a section of their own.
Full electric and hybrid vehicles are presented, and the role that the battery plays
in the vehicle control systems is outlined.
Rome, March 2008
Gianfranco Pistoia
1
Chapter 1
AREAS OF BATTERY APPLICATIONS
1.1. Introduction
This chapter aims at providing an overview of products and systems using
batteries. Here, the term product indicates any device – small or large, portable
or not – powered by a battery. The term system indicates a large installation,
such as an energy storage plant to back up an electricity grid, or an extended
sensor network.
Several criteria may be used to classify the countless applications of
batteries reported in Table 1.1. In this book, three major categories have been
considered: portable, industrial and traction/automotive. The first category is
mainly represented by consumer applications but has to be extended to any
application whose weight and volume allows portability. Therefore, even appli-
cations that a consumer rarely comes to know about, for example in the medical
field, are enclosed in this category. Industrial applications encompass a wide
spectrum, from robots to weather satellites, from oil drilling to telecommunica-
tions. Finally, traction and automotive applications include electric and hybrid
electric cars, as well as their control systems. Strictly speaking, car-related
applications should also be enclosed among the industrial ones. However, they
are treated in a separate chapter because of their special interest: many people
are willing to know more about these cars and their batteries in terms of
performance, cost, reliability and development perspectives.
On the basis of these categories, Chapters 3, 4 and 5 will deal with
applications typical of portable, industrial and traction/automotive batteries,
respectively. However, in this chapter, some tables are anticipated: in
Table 1.2, batteries are listed according to homogeneous groups of applications;
in Table 1.3, applications or requirements in terms of current/power, duty cycle,
dimensions, durability, etc., are reported together with the battery type/charac-
teristic; in Table 1.4, the energy ranges of various battery-powered applications
are indicated.
General characteristics of the main battery types are reported in Chapter 2.
However, this book is more oriented to device (or system) description; more
details on batteries can be found in the references listed at the end of that
chapter.
2 Chapter 1 Areas of Battery Applications
Table 1.1. Applications using batteries (listed in alphabetical order).
Aerospace Clockwise operated devices
Access control devices Communications
Airborne control devices diagnostic equipment
Aircraft Communication – radio
Alarms – burglar Communication
Alarm – fire telephone systems
Alarm monitoring Computer – portable
Alarm panels Computer – home
Alarm – pollution Computer laptop
Alarm refrigerator Computer mainframe
Alarm water level Computer peripherals
Alarm – seismic Construction lasers
Alert devices Control equipment
Animal ID readers Converters/programmers
Animal tracking Cordless telephones
Appliances – portable Cordless toothbrushes
Audio video equipment Counting
Automobile electronic systems Industrial
Automotive accessories Thermostatic
Automotive electronic memory Timing
Automotive fuel systems
Automotive Data logging
locator for theft Inventory
Automotive Dental equipment – portable
security systems Digital cameras
Avalanche rescue Diving equipment
transmitters
EKG equipment
Backup power Electric cash register
Ball pitching equipment Electric door openers
Bar code scanners – portable Electric fans
Bone healing aids Electric fences
Buoy – oceanographic Electric gates
Electric locks
Cable TV Electric meter transponders
Calculators Electric trolling motors (fishing)
Calorimeters Electric/electronic distributors
Camcorders Electric/electronic scales
Cameras Electric vehicles
Cargo tracking Electronic counting systems
Chemical sensors Electronic games
Cellular telephones Electronic nerve stimulation units
Clocks Elevator – escalators
Clocks – scientific Emergency call boxes
1.1. Introduction 3
Table 1.1. (Continued)
Emergency devices Hearing aids
Emergency lighting Hybrid electric vehicles
Emergency notification
Entertainment Identification
Musical instruments Finger
Public address amps Face
Stereo tuners Hand
Tape recorders Implantable medical devices
TV recorders Industrial control equipment
VCRs Industrial tools
Video cameras Infrared equipment – portable
Environmental Intelligent telephones
test equipment Laboratory analytical instruments
Exercise bikes and equipment LAN power backup
Exit lights Lanterns
Facsimile machine Lasers
Fiber-optic test equipment Lifts
Fire alarm panels Lights
Fire suppression systems Camera, video, etc.
Fish finders Highway safety
Flashlights Maintenance
Flow meters (heat, gas and water) Photographic
Fragrance dispensers Railroad
Freeway call boxes Underwater
Load levelling
Game feeders and callers
Garden equipment Marine communications
Garage door openers Marine instrumentation
Gas emergency cutoff systems Marine depth finders
Gas meter transponders Marine
Gas motor starting underwater propulsion
Gas station elec. pump Measuring and controlling devices
Geometrics Measuring and dispensing pumps
Geophysical Medical alert equipment
Seismic instruments Medical beds
Surveying equipment Medical CPR equipment
Golf carts Medical crash carts
GPS equipment Medical
Bio-sensors
Hand-held computers Blood oximeters
Hand-held test equipment Cardiac monitors
Hand-held devices Defibrillators
(Continued)
4 Chapter 1 Areas of Battery Applications
Table 1.1. (Continued)
Diagnostic equipment Pagers
Dialysis machine Parking lot tags
Drug dispensers Parking meters – digital
Ear thermometers PBX (private branch exchange) backup
Glucose meters PDAs
Incubators Personal organizers
Infusion pumps Photovoltaic
Inhalators Portable data entry terminals
Intravenous pumps Portable lights
Life support equipment Portable power line monitors
Sleep apnoea monitor Portable measuring instruments
Telemetry equipment Portable monitoring equipment
Therapy equipment Portable public address systems
Wheelchairs Portable transceivers
Memory backup devices Portable VoIP
Metal detectors Portable welding equipment
Meteorological instruments Portable X-ray equipment
Meters Power supplies
Electricity, gas, water Power tools
Consumption Printers – portable
Microwave Probes
communications Pulse power devices
Missile launch/tracking
Radar guns
Military electronics
Radio-controlled devices
Military fire control systems
Radio frequency ID tags
Military target range equipment
Railroad signalling
Mini-UPS
Real-time clocks
Modems
Refrigeration units
Monitors – portable
Rehabilitation devices
Motherboards
Remote level control
Motor starters
Remote site equipment
Muscle stimulator
Rescue transmitters
Musical instruments – electrical
Respirators
Robots
Ocean current monitors
Oceanographic equipment Satellites
Office equipment Search and detection equipment
portable/programm. Scales and balance devices
Oil refinery backup Security gates
Ophthalmic instruments Security scanners
Optical instruments Security systems
Oxygen analysers Seismic measurements
Oxygen monitors Sequence control equipment
1.2. Application Sectors and Market Considerations 5
Table 1.1. (Continued)
Shopping cart displays Transponders
Smart cards Transportation
Smoke alarms and detectors Turner memories for VCRs
Solar energy storage Two-way radios
Solar walklights
Ultrasound equipment
Spectrometers
Unmanned air systems
Speed measurement
Underwater gliders
Laser and radar
Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)
Scoring systems
Skydiving instruments Utilities
timing systems Vending machines
Stenography machines Vehicle recovery systems
Surgeon suits Video cameras
Surveying instruments VSAT backup power
Switching systems
backup power Watches
Water treatment controls
Taximeters Weather instrumentation
Telecommunications Well logging instrumentation
Timing devices Wheelchair and scooters
Toll road transceivers Wind energy storage
Toys Wireless products
Electromechanical Turnstiles
Programmable Headsets
Radio controlled Test equipment
Riding Wi-Fi and bluetooth
Traffic delineators Word processing systems
Trailer tracking devices
Transmitters Zigbee
1.2. Application Sectors and Market Considerations
The numerous applications listed in Tables 1.1 and 1.2 can be further
grouped into the following sectors from a market standpoint [3].
1.2.1. Computing
This large and well-established sector includes portable computers, personal
digital assistants (PDAs) and calculators. Portable computer batteries are typically
lithium ion (Li-ion) and, less frequently, nickel metal hydride (Ni-MH). PDAs
6 Chapter 1 Areas of Battery Applications
Table 1.2. Applications using batteries (listed by homogeneous groups).
Agricultural Computing and Data Acquisition
• Livestock/game feeders • Computers & peripheral equipment
• Livestock reproduction • Hand-held data gathering
devices
• Data loggers
Automotive
• Electronic memory
• Accessories Control Equipment
• Fuel systems • Thermostatic
• Braking systems • Timing
• Automatic crash notification • Electro-mechanical systems
• Tire pressure monitoring
system
Energy Generation,
• Electric bicycles/scooters Transmission and Storage
• EV & HEV
• SLI (Starting, Lighting, • Solar generators
Ignition) • Wind generators
• Toll collection • Load levelling
• Electricity substations
• Gas turbine control
Back-up
• LAN Lighting
• Memory • Emergency lighting
• Uninterruptible power supplies • Exit lights
(UPS)
• Hand-held lights
• PBX (Private Branch Exchange) • Highway safety
• Mini-UPS • Photographic
• VSAT (Very Small Aperture • Underwater
[Satellite] Terminal)
• Lanterns
• Solar walk lights
Communications
• Traffic
• Radio • Airport runway lighting
• Railroad signalling
• Telephone systems Medical Applications
• Global positioning equipment • Electronic nerve stimulation units
• Marine communications • Emergency devices
• Microwave • Heart defibrillators
• Portable transceivers • Breathing-assistance equipment
• Two-way radios • Laboratory analytical instruments
• Cordless & cellular phones • Medical alert equipment
• Portable PA (Public Address) • Medical beds
systems • Medical CPR (Cardio-pulmonary
• Freeway call boxes Resuscitation) equipment
• Automatic assistance system • Medical crash carts
1.2. Application Sectors and Market Considerations 7
Table 1.2. (Continued)
• Diagnostic equipment Monitoring Equipment
• Dialysis machine • Airborne instruments
• Incubators • Seismic instrumentation &
• Life support equipment alarms
• Therapy equipment • Surveying equipment
• Wheelchairs • Pollution alarms
• Patient moving • Transmitters
• Telemetry equipment • Tracking systems
• Infusion pumps • Meteorological instruments
• Optic instruments • Fiber-optic test equipment
• Portable X-ray machines • Portable monitors
• Cardiac monitors • Bar code portable readers
• Dental equipment • Ocean current monitors
Military
• Portable power line monitors
• Search & detection equipment
• Aerospace • Scales & balance devices
• Aircraft instruments • Scientific instruments
• Missile launching/tracking • Oil drilling
• Fire control systems • Speed measurement
• Target range equipment • Water consumption meters
• Gunnery control • Heat consumption meters
Miscellaneous • Electricity consumption meters
• Freon leak detectors • AMR (Automatic Meter Readers)
• End of train signalling • Gas consumption meters
• Railroad track hot boxes • Gas flow meters
• Invisible fences Recreation
• Bowling alley lane • Sporting goods
cleaner
• Trolling motors
• DC power lifts • Fish finders
• Floor scrubbers • Electronic deep sea fishing reel
• Portable welders • Tennis ball thrower
• Industrial torque wrenches • Hobby craft
• Traffic counters • Toys
• Portable heaters
• Laser products Security Systems
• Robotics • Burglar alarms
• Lawn & garden • Fire alarms
equipment • Alarm panels
• Point of sale terminals • Monitoring alarms
• Switching systems • Electric fences & gates
• Elevators • Metal detectors
• Power tools • Access control devices
• Vacuum cleaners • Ride-on
(Continued)
8 Chapter 1 Areas of Battery Applications
Table 1.2. (Continued)
Video Equipment
• Televisions
• Camcorders
• Audio-visual devices
• Cameras and video lighting
• Cable television
Table 1.3. Applications, or requirements, and related battery types.
Application/Requirement Battery Types or Characteristics
Low-power, low-cost consumer Low-power primary and secondary cells.
applications ´
Leclanche, alkaline, Ni-Cd, Ni-MH,
primary lithium
Power tools, cordless equipment Ni-Cd, Ni-MH, Li-ion
Small devices, hearing aids, watches, Primary button and coin cells, zinc-air,
calculators, memory back up, wireless silver oxide, primary lithium
peripherals
Medical implants, long life, low self Primary lithium, button and special cells
discharge, high reliability
Automotive (starting, lighting and ignition Lead-acid
(SLI))
Automotive traction batteries Lead-acid, Ni-MH, Li-ion, Na/NiCl2
Industrial traction batteries Lead-acid, Ni-MH
Other traction batteries: robots, bicycles, Lead-acid, Nickel-Zinc, Li-ion, Ni-MH
scooters, wheelchairs, lawnmowers
Deep discharge, boats, caravans Nickel-zinc, lead-acid, special
construction
Standby power, UPS (trickle charged) Lead-acid, Ni-Cd
Emergency power, long shelf life Lithium, water-activated reserve batteries
Emergency power, stored electrolyte Reserve batteries
Very high power, load levelling Vanadium-redox flow batteries, Na/S,
lead-acid, Ni-MH, Li-ion
Marine use, emergency power Water-activated reserve batteries
High-voltage batteries Multiple cells
High-capacity batteries, long discharge Multiple cells, special constructions,
times special chemistries
Low power, maximum energy density Li-ion
Remote instrumentation
Maximum power density Primary lithium, Li-ion
Booster batteries, HEV applications Ni-MH, Li-ion, Na/NiCl2
1.2. Application Sectors and Market Considerations 9
Table 1.3. (Continued)
Application/Requirement Battery Types or Characteristics
Long shelf life, low self discharge Primary lithium, special chemical
additives
Long cycle life Temperature controls, built-in battery
management systems (BMS),
recombinant systems, chemical additives
Satellites, aerospace applications Ni-Cd, Nickel-H2, Li-ion, primary Li,
Silver-zinc
High-energy density, lightweight Zinc-air, primary lithium, Li-ion
Special shapes Solid state, Li-ion polymer
Wide temperature range Chemical additives, built in heaters, liquid
cooling
Low maintenance Sealed cells, recombinant chemistries
Inherently safe Sealed cells, stored electrolyte, solid
electrolyte, special chemistries
Robust Special constructions
Missiles and munitions, safe storage, High-temperature batteries
single use, robust, short one off
discharge
Torpedoes, short one off discharge Water-activated batteries
Intelligent battery (communications Built in electronics to control charging
between charger and battery) and discharging
AC-powered devices Built-in electronics (inverter) to provide
AC power
Remote charging Solar cells with deep discharge batteries
Short period power boost Lithium, Ni-MH
Source: Adapted from Ref. [1]
typically use Li-ion batteries, and to a lesser extent Ni-MH or primary alkaline.
Calculators may use alkaline, lithium or silver-zinc primary systems.
As with portable communications (see the next section), trends include an
increasing convergence between cell phones and other portable products such as
PDAs and cameras.
Driving forces and market developments include the following:
• Explosive growth has ended. Slow, but steady, sales until the next
technology turning point.
• Tablet computers are becoming more important (mainly for commercial
users). They are a viable alternative for many applications, and this could
eventually grow from a niche market to a significant market sector.
10 Chapter 1 Areas of Battery Applications
Table 1.4. Energy ranges of different battery groups and related applications.
Battery Type Energy Applications
Miniature batteries 100 mWh–2 Wh Electric watches, calculators, implanted
medical devices
Batteries for portable 2–100 Wh Flashlights, toys, power tools, portable
equipment radio and TV, mobile phones,
camcorders, laptop computers, memory
refreshing, instruments, cordless devices,
wireless peripherals, emergency beacons
SLI batteries 100–600 Wh Cars, trucks, buses, lawn mowers, wheel
(starting, lighting chairs, robots
and ignition)
Vehicle traction 0.5–630 kWh EV, HEV, forklift trucks, bikes,
batteries locomotives, wheel chairs, golf carts
Stationary batteries 250 Wh–5 MWh Emergency power, local energy storage,
(except load remote relay stations, communication
levelling) base stations, uninterruptible power
supplies (UPS).
Military and Wide range Satellites, munitions, robots, emergency
aerospace power, communications
Special purpose 3 MWh Submarines
Load levelling 2–100 MWh Spinning reserve, peak shaving, load
batteries levelling
Source: From Ref. [2].
• Wearable computers are now being commercialized. Most technical issues
have been solved, but creative marketing approaches are needed.
• Convergence between cell phones, PDAs, digital cameras, Global
Positioning System (GPS), etc., is being realized. These applications
need higher performance batteries and chargers.
• High-performance broadband wireless devices for data services, e-mail,
e-commerce, etc., are being proposed. In the long run, cell phones may
also cut into the laptop market, but the convergence issues need to be
considered.
• Lower prices for PDA hardware and services are expected, this bringing
about higher unit sales but proportionally lower market value. At a certain
point, portable phones will clearly be a valid alternative to residential and
business landlines. This could boost unit sales.
Computer memory represents a specific area – see also Section 4.17.
Memory chips need to be powered by batteries, so as to protect data during
1.2. Application Sectors and Market Considerations 11
power outages or when the product is deactivated. Small primary button cells
predominate; they include a variety of Li, alkaline and other types. Li-based
memory preservation solutions should be preferred in the future, but use of other
battery systems will decline, mainly due to competition from non-battery sys-
tems such as ultracapacitors.
1.2.2. Communications
This sector encompasses the well-established and very large market of
cellular phones, now mostly powered by Li-ion batteries, pagers (now a declin-
ing technology) and portable transceivers (powered by everything from lead-
acid to Li-ion).
Trends include, as mentioned above, an increasing convergence between
cell phones, PDAs and cameras. Driving forces and market developments in the
portable communications industry include the following:
• The requirement that cell phone numbers be ‘portable’ makes it easier for
consumers to switch service providers; more interest by consumers,
possibly more inclination to upgrade hardware when a new service
provider is selected; lower price.
• Convergence between cell phones, PDAs, laptops, digital cameras, GPS,
etc. – see the previous section.
• High-performance broadband wireless devices with computing capabilities –
see the previous section.
• Cordless phones adopt cell phone look and features. Relatively lower
prices and higher performance.
1.2.3. Portable Tools
This is a niche market for portable personal grooming, power tools, lawn
tools and kitchen tools. This is one of the largest remaining nickel-cadmium
(Ni-Cd) battery markets, although the share of Li-ion is rapidly increasing in
hobby and professional tools. Lead-acid, primary lithium and alkaline batteries
are also used.
Ni-Cd batteries will continue to power low-end tools but will lose ground
to Ni-MH for medium-performance systems and to Li-ion for high-end
systems. New tools powered by Li-ion feature high power and reduced
dimensions.
12 Chapter 1 Areas of Battery Applications
1.2.4. Medical Applications
Portable medical devices include hearing aids, heart pacemakers,
defibrillators, and various diagnostic and therapeutic devices (see Section 3.3).
A number of different battery types are used, including Zn-air (mainly for
hearing aids), lead-acid, alkaline, nickel-based, primary Li and Li-ion.
Driving forces and market developments include the following:
• Population aging: increasing number of disabled elderly people; continued
sales growth for a variety of medical products.
• Possibility for increased subsidies for portable medical products.
• Lower prices for established medical product lines, such as hearing aids;
increased unit sales for medium- and high-end (digital) hearing aids.
• Steadily improving heart disease treatment products and new guidelines
that increase the number of potential implantable defibrillator patients;
continued sales growth for cardiac rhythm management devices.
1.2.5. Other Portable Products
This sector includes lighting, toys, radios, scientific instruments, photo-
graphic devices, smart cards, watches and clocks, etc. A wide variety of primary
and secondary systems are used, with aqueous or non-aqueous electrolytes.
Driving forces and market developments include the following:
• Increased demand for portable video games; growing unit and market
value from an already large base.
• Increased demand for wireless game products; growing unit and market
value from a relatively small base.
• Increased interest in all kinds of toy robots; a better defined market
niche may begin with increased sales in low-, medium- and high-end
products.
• Increased use of high-performance Original Equipment Manufacturer
(OEM) Li-ion and Ni-MH batteries.
• Continued demand for GPS systems, including units incorporated in cell
phones; steadily growing GPS sales, with some decrease in unit price.
• Slow and steady growth in consumer weather instruments.
In Table 1.5, an evaluation of the world battery market for the portable
device sectors mentioned thus far is reported (decade: 2006–2016). All sectors
manifest a growth, although with a different pace. Changes in the growth rate
may result from significant technology developments.
1.2. Application Sectors and Market Considerations 13
Table 1.5. World portable device battery market for the decade
2006–2016.
Year
Sector 2006 2011 2016
Computinga 3500 3600 3750
Communications 2450 2900 3100
Tools 280 340 380
Medical 650 770 880
Other portable 13 400 14 650 15 300
Note: The values represent manufacturer’s wholesale and are in 2006 million
dollars (no correction for inflation).
Source: Courtesy of BCC Research.
a
Includes computer memory.
The high value of the market for ‘other’ portable devices corresponds to a
very large number of applications in this area (see Table 1.1). Many of these
applications are powered by primary batteries, especially Zn-carbon and alka-
line, that represent $70% of the total batteries sold.
1.2.6. UPS and Backup Batteries
Uninterruptible and emergency power supplies are activated when utility
power is interdicted. Large units are used to provide standby power to tele-
communications arrays.
Lead-acid and Ni-Cd batteries predominate, but higher performance systems,
including sodium/sulphur, vanadium-redox and Li-ion batteries are emerging.
1.2.7. Aerospace and Military Applications
In this area, there is a wide variety of portable and stationary high-profile
applications, for example civilian and military robots, manned and unmanned
aircraft, satellites, wireless transmission systems, beacons, etc.
Virtually all battery types are used, including nickel-based, primary Li and
Li-ion, alkaline and lead-acid. Many types of specialty batteries are used to meet
unique performance requirements, but there is a continuing trend towards
Li-based systems.
Driving forces include the following:
• Increased number of conflicts in some areas of the world.
• Improved advanced battery-powered devices, for example those of the
soldier equipment.
14 Chapter 1 Areas of Battery Applications
• Development of EV fleets for non-combat missions.
• Adoption of battery-powered fighting or exploration vehicles.
• Robots, including those of much reduced dimensions (microrobots).
1.2.8. Electric Vehicles and Hybrid Electric Vehicles
This is the still relatively small, but potentially attractive market for cars
and trucks with an electric engine. This includes some ‘plug-in’ electric vehicles
(EVs), where the battery stacks are recharged from the utility power grid and
hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), where an internal combustion engine charges
the battery through the generator. ‘Regenerative braking’ uses kinetic energy to
recharge the battery when the vehicle slows down.
Lead-acid and, especially, Ni-MH systems are used in most vehicles. Li-
ion is another promising option.
The current trend is towards HEV systems, whereas pure battery-powered
vehicles are trying to regain momentum (see Chapter 5). There is a potential for
competition from fuel cells; vehicles powered by hydrogen fuel cells are
especially investigated in Europe.
Industrial vehicles, for example forklifts and burden carriers, use lead-acid
batteries, and despite promising non-lead alternatives, there is a little motivation
to change.
For EV and HEV commercialization to continue, the main problems to be
addressed are:
• Cost-effectiveness, especially compared to gasoline or diesel fuel (but also
alternative fuels such as natural gas or ethanol).
• Technical problems (optimization of performance, comfort, cycle life,
etc.).
• Safety issues.
1.2.9. Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) Vehicles
These vehicles use lead-acid starting, lighting and ignition (SLI) batteries
in all areas of the globe. However, developing countries tend to use less
expensive units. Japanese, American and Western European consumers tend to
be the early innovators who employ new technology as it is introduced.
Examples of innovation are dual batteries, which are essentially two separate
batteries fabricated into a single package: if one battery in the set is inadvertently
discharged, the other auxiliary battery can provide cranking power (see Chapter 5).
Trends include use of 36/42 V systems in substitution of conventional 12/14 V
References 15
systems, although cost issues have delayed their acceptance. There is some con-
sideration for portable jump-start batteries, including Li-ion products.
1.3. Application’s and Battery’s Life
Let us consider an electronic device, for example a notebook or a medical
instrument. Given the electronic characteristics, the size and the operating
conditions of the device, the battery requirements become obvious and the
choice is oriented. While this allows discarding a number of batteries, those
chosen can be optimized in their functioning, so that they can reach the
performance observed in laboratory tests. High-end batteries are now endowed
with a battery management system (BMS), which manages critical parameters
such as charge/discharge voltage, temperature, and maximum current, so as to
prolong battery life, while ensuring at the same time a high safety level.
However, as is obvious, the device’s runtime also depends on its own
power characteristics, and care must be exerted to reduce power consumption as
much as possible. This can be obtained by a proper component selection and by
a judicious management of the device especially in standby mode, when unduly
high currents must be minimized.
At the same time, any other feature of the device that may reduce the
battery life must be considered. For instance, its thermal behaviour is of para-
mount importance, as any heat transferred to the battery would shorten the
battery life; therefore, proper heat shielding and/or cooling means, when possi-
ble, must be put in operation.
On the basis of the above considerations, in Chapter 3 (Portable Applica-
tions) particular emphasis will be put on the dual management action for the
device and its battery.
Obviously, non-portable high-end applications too are endowed with
management features. Therefore, mentions of management actions in industrial
and vehicular applications will also be given in Chapters 4 and 5.
An overview of the characteristics of battery management is reported in Ref.
[4], with examples of management for batteries used in non-portable applications.
References
1. MPower, ‘‘Batteries and Other Energy Storage Devices’’, 2005.
2. MPower, ‘‘Battery Applications’’, 2005.
3. D. Saxman, in Industrial Applications of Batteries. From Cars to Aerospace, Energy Storage,
M. Broussely and G. Pistoia, Eds., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2007.
4. MPower, ‘‘Battery Management Systems’’, 2005.
17
Chapter 2
BATTERY CATEGORIES AND TYPES
2.1. Introduction
The type(s) of batteries used in specific applications will be mentioned in
Chapters 3–5, but a concise review of battery chemistries and their main features
will be given in this chapter.
Common classifications of batteries are (1) primary/secondary;
(2) aqueous/non-aqueous; (3) low/high power; and (4) according to the size,
for example button, prismatic and cylindrical. In this chapter, the division will
be made according to the main application categories specified in Chapter 1.
Therefore, the following three groups may be identified. (In this book, for a
battery designated by the chemical formula of the negative and positive electrode,
for example Zn and MnO2, the notation with a slash will be used: Zn/MnO2. For
a battery designated by a conventional definition, for example zinc–carbon,
the notation with a dash will be used: Zn-C.)
1. Batteries mainly used in portable applications
Zinc-carbon
Alkaline
Zinc-air (small size)
Primary zinc/silver oxide
2. Batteries used in both portable and industrial/vehicular applications
Primary lithium
Lithium ion
Nickel–cadmium
Nickel-metal hydride
Lead-acid (in a few portable applications only)
Secondary zinc/silver oxide
3. Batteries mainly used in industrial/vehicular applications
Nickel–hydrogen
Nickel–zinc
Nickel–iron
Large zinc-air
Flow batteries
Thermal batteries (include Li-metal-polymer)
18 Chapter 2 Battery Categories and Types
In Tables 2.1–2.13, the characteristics of several systems, aqueous and
non-aqueous, primary and secondary, are listed. It is necessary to treat this kind
of data with some care when comparisons are made, as the batteries (cells) may
differ in size, construction, technology maturity, etc.
2.2. Batteries for Portable Applications
Up to the 1940s, Zn-C was the only system used for primary batteries.
Since then, several other systems have been commercialized: alkaline batteries,
in particular, have gained wide acceptance thanks to their improved perfor-
mance vs the Zn-C ones, as shown in Table 2.1, where the most important
aqueous primary batteries are compared.
2.2.1. Zinc-Carbon Batteries
The first Zn/MnO2 battery was introduced in the middle of the nineteenth
century; its electrolyte is immobilized in an inert support, which justifies the
name of “dry battery”. This cheap battery is still largely used in moderate and
light drain applications. However, it cannot compete with alkaline Zn/MnO2 in
terms of performance, and its use is declining except for emerging countries [2].
´
Dry batteries can use either the Leclanche or the ZnCl2 system (Table 2.1).
The former uses an aqueous electrolyte containing NH4Cl (26%) and ZnCl2
(8.8%), while the latter contains ZnCl2 (15–40%). In both electrolytes, inhibitors
of Zn corrosion are added.
The electrodes are basically the same in both systems. The Zn can of the
cell is also the anode, while the cathode is a mix of electrochemically active
MnO2 and carbon. In principle, the electrochemistry of the Zn-C cell is quite
simple with Zn oxidation to Zn2þ and Mn4þ reduction to Mn3þ (MnOOH or
Mn2O3). In practice, the reactions are rather complicated and depend on several
factors, such as electrolyte concentration, temperature, rate and depth of
discharge.
These batteries can have a cylindrical or a flat configuration. In the former,
a bobbin containing a mixture of MnO2, carbon black and electrolyte surrounds
the carbon rod, serving as a current collector for the cathode (hence the name
Zn-C). The separator between the Zn can and the bobbin is usually paper thinly
coated with a paste of gelled flour and starch absorbing the electrolyte. To
prevent electrolyte leakage due to perforation of the Zn can, the latter is jacketed
with a polymer film or polymer-coated steel.
In the flat configuration, rectangular cells are stacked to give prismatic
batteries, for example the popular 9-V size. The construction in this case is quite
Table 2.1. Comparison of the main characteristics of aqueous primary batteries.
´
Leclanche Zinc Chloride Alkaline/Manganese Silver Oxide
(Zn/MnO2) (Zn/MnO2) Dioxide (Zn/MnO2) (Zn/Ag2O) Zinc-Air (Zn/O2)
System Zinc/manganese Zinc/manganese Zinc/alkaline Zinc/silver oxide Zinc/oxygen
dioxide dioxide manganese
dioxide
Voltage 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.4
per cell
Positive Manganese Manganese dioxide Manganese Monovalent Oxygen
electrode dioxide dioxide silver oxide
Electrolyte Aqueous solution Aqueous solution Aqueous solution Aqueous solution of Aqueous solution
of NH4Cl and of ZnCl2 of KOH KOH or NaOH of KOH
ZnCl2 (may contain
some NH4Cl)
Overall reaction 2MnO2 þ 2NH4Cl þ 8MnO2 þ 4Zn þ Zn þ 2MnO2 þ Zn þ Ag2O ! 2Zn þ O2
equations Zn ! ZnCl2Á2NH3 ZnCl2Á9H2O ! 2H2O ! ZnO þ 2Ag ! 2ZnO
þ Mn2O3ÁH2O 8MnOOH þ Zn(OH)2 þ
ZnCl2Á4ZnOÁ5H2O 2MnOOH
Typical commercial Several hundred mAh Several hundred 30 mAh to 45 Ah 5 to 190 mAh 30 to 1100 mAh
service capacities mAh to 38 Ah
Specific energies 65 (cylindrical) 85 (cylindrical) 80 (button); 145 135 (button) 370 (button);
(Wh/kg) (cylindrical) 300 (prismatic)
Energy densities 100 (cylindrical) 165 (cylindrical) 360 (button); 400 530 (button) 1300 (button);
(Wh/L) (cylindrical) 800 (prismatic)
Discharge curve Sloping Sloping Sloping Flat Flat
Temperature range À40 to 50°C À40 to 50°C À40 to 50°C À40 to 60°C À40 to 50°C
(storage)
(Continued)
