Artificial Intelligence
and Soft Computing
Behavioral and Cognitive Modeling
of the Human Brain
Artificial Intelligence
and Soft Computing
Behavioral and Cognitive Modeling
of the Human Brain
Amit Konar
Department of Electronics and Tele-communication Engineering
Jadavpur University, Calcutta, India
CRC Press
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Konar, Amit.
Artificial intelligence and soft computing : behavioral and cognitive modeling of
the human brain / Amit Konar.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-1385-6 (alk. paper)
1. Soft computing. 2. Artificial intelligence. 3. Brain—Computer simulation. I. Title.
QA76.9.S63 K59 1999
006.3--dc21 99-048018
CIP
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PREFACE
The book, to the best of the author’s knowledge, is the first text of its kind that
presents both the traditional and the modern aspects of ‘AI and Soft
Computing’ in a clear, insightful and highly comprehensive writing style. It
provides an in-depth analysis of the mathematical models and algorithms, and
demonstrates their applications in real world problems of significant
complexity.
1. About the book
The book covers 24 chapters altogether. It starts with the behavioral
perspective of the ‘human cognition’ and covers in detail the tools and
techniques required for its intelligent realization on machines. The classical
chapters on search, symbolic logic, planning and machine learning have been
covered in sufficient details, including the latest research in the subject. The
modern aspects of soft computing have been introduced from the first
principles and discussed in a semi-informal manner, so that a beginner of the
subject is able to grasp it with minimal effort. Besides soft computing, the
other leading aspects of current AI research covered in the book include non-
monotonic and spatio-temporal reasoning, knowledge acquisition,
verification, validation and maintenance issues, realization of cognition on
machines and the architecture of AI machines. The book ends with two case
studies: one on ‘criminal investigation’ and the other on ‘navigational
planning of robots,’ where the main emphasis is given on the realization of
intelligent systems using the methodologies covered in the book.
The book is unique for its diversity in contents, clarity and precision of
presentation and the overall completeness of its chapters. It requires no
mathematical prerequisites beyond the high school algebra and elementary
differential calculus; however, a mathematical maturity is required to follow
the logical concepts presented therein. An elementary background of data
structure and a high level programming language like Pascal or C is helpful to
understand the book. The book, thus, though meant for two semester courses
of computer science, will be equally useful to readers of other engineering
disciplines and psychology as well as for its diverse contents, clear
presentation and minimum prerequisite requirements.
In order to make the students aware of the applied side of the subject,
the book includes a few homework problems, selected from a wide range of
topics. The problems supplied, in general, are of three types: i) numerical, ii)
reflexive and iii) provocative. The numerical problems test the students’
understanding of the subject. The reflexive type requires a formulation of the
problem from its statement before finding its solution. The provocative type
includes the well-known problems of modern AI research, the solution to
some of which are known, and some are open ended. With adequate hints
supplied with the problems, the students will be able to solve most of the
numerical and reflexive type problems themselves. The provocative type,
however, requires some guidance from the teacher in charge. The last type of
problems is included in the text to give the research-oriented readers an idea
of the current trend in AI research. Graduate students of AI will also find
these problems useful for their dissertation work.
The book includes a large number of computer simulations to illustrate
the concepts presented in logic programming, fuzzy Petri nets, imaging and
robotics. Most of the simulation programs are coded in C and Pascal, so that
students without any background of PROLOG and LISP may understand them
easily. These programs will enhance the students’ confidence in the subject
and enable them to design the simulation programs, assigned in the exercise as
homework problems. The professionals will find these simulations interesting
as it requires understanding of the end results only, rather than the formal
proofs of the theorems presented in the text.
2. Special features
The book includes the following special features.
i) Unified theme of presentation: Most of the existing texts on AI cover a set
of chapters of diverse thoughts, without demonstrating their inter-relationship.
The readers, therefore, are misled with the belief that AI is merely a
collection of intelligent algorithms, which precisely is not correct. The
proposed book is developed from the perspective of cognitive science, which
provides the readers with the view that the psychological model of cognition
can be visualized as a cycle of 5 mental states: sensing, acquisition,
perception, planning and action, and there exists a strong interdependence
between each two sequential states. The significance of search in the state of
perception, reasoning in the state of planning, and learning as an intermediate
process between sensing and action thus makes sense. The unified theme of
the book, therefore, is to realize the behavioral perspective of cognition on an
intelligent machine, so as to enable it act and think like a human being.
Readers will enjoy the book especially for its totality with an ultimate aim to
build intelligent machines.
ii) Comprehensive coverage of the mathematical models: This probably is
the first book that provides a comprehensive coverage of the mathematical
models on AI and Soft Computing. The existing texts on “mathematical
modeling in AI” are beyond the scope of undergraduate students.
Consequently, while taking courses at graduate level, the students face much
difficulty in studying from monographs and journals. The book, however,
bridges the potential gap between the textbooks and advanced monographs in
the subject by presenting the mathematical models from a layman’s
understanding of the problems.
iii) Case studies: This is the only book that demonstrates the realization of
the proposed tools and techniques of AI and Soft Computing through case
studies. The readers, through these case studies, will understand the
significance of the joint usage of the AI and Soft Computing tools and
techniques in interesting problems of the real world. Case studies for two
distinct problems with special emphasis to their realization have been covered
in the book in two separate chapters. The case study I is concerned with a
problem of criminal investigation, where the readers will learn to use the soft
computing tools in facial image matching, fingerprint classification, speaker
identification and incidental description based reasoning. The readers can
build up their own systems by adding new fuzzy production rules and facts
and deleting the unwanted rules and facts from the system. The book thus will
serve the readership from both the academic and the professional world.
Electronic and computer hobbyists will find the case study II on mobile robots
very exciting. The algorithms of navigational planning (in case study II),
though tested with reference to “Nomad Super Scout II robot,” have been
presented in generic form, so that the interested readers can code them for
other wheel-based mobile robots.
iv) Line Diagrams: The book includes around 190 line diagrams to give the
readers a better insight to the subject. Readers will enjoy the book for they
directly get a deeper view of the subject through diagrams with a minimal
reading of the text.
3. Origin of the book
The book is an outgrowth of the lecture materials prepared by the author for a
one semester course on “Artificial Intelligence,” offered to the graduate
students in the department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Engineering, Jadavpur University, Calcutta. An early version of the text was
also used in a summer-school on “AI and Neural Nets,” offered to the faculty
members of various engineering colleges for their academic development and
training. The training program included theories followed by a laboratory
course, where the attendees developed programs in PROLOG, Pascal and C
with the help of sample programs/toolkit. The toolkit is included in the book
on a CD and the procedure to use it is presented in Appendix A.
4. Structural organization of the book
The structural organization of the book is presented below with a dependency
graph of chapters, where Ch. 9 → Ch. 10 means that chapter 10 should be
read following chapter 9, for example.
Ch. 1
Ch.2 Ch.3 Ch.17 Ch. 13 Ch.18
Ch. 16 Ch. 19 Ch.5 Ch. 4 Ch. 23 Ch. 14
Ch. 6
Ch.7 Ch.11 Ch. 15 Ch. 20
Ch. 8
Ch. 9 Ch. 12
Ch. 10
Ch. 24 Ch. 22 Ch. 21
July 12, 1999
Jadavpur University Amit Konar
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Amit Konar is a Reader in the Department of Electronics and
Telecommunication Engineering, Jadavpur University, Calcutta. He received a
Ph.D. (Engineering) degree in Artificial Intelligence from the same university
in 1994 and has been teaching the subject of Artificial Intelligence to the
graduate students of his department for the last 10 years. Dr. Konar has
supervised a number of Ph.D. and M.E. theses on different aspects of machine
intelligence, including logic programming, neural networks, cognitive systems,
stochastic and fuzzy models of uncertainty, fuzzy algebra, image
understanding, architecture of intelligent machines and navigational planning
of mobile robots. He has published more than 60 papers in international
journals and conferences. He is an invited contributor of a book chapter in an
edited book published by Academic Press. Dr. Konar is a recipient of the 1997
Young Scientist Award, offered by the All India Council for Technical
Education (AICTE) for his significant contributions in Artificial Intelligence
and Soft Computing.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author gratefully acknowledges the contributions of many people, who
helped him in different ways to complete the book. First and foremost, he
wishes to thank his graduate students attending the course entitled “AI and
Pattern Recognition” in ETCE department, Jadavpur University during the
1993-1999 sessions. Next, he would like to thank the scholars working for
their Ph.D. degree under his supervision. In this regard, the author
acknowledges the contribution of Ms. Jaya Sil, a recipient of the Ph.D. degree
in 1996, for spending many of her valuable hours on discussion of the
Bayesian and Markov models of knowledge representation. The other
scholars, to whom the author is greatly indebted for sharing their knowledge
in different areas of AI, are Mr. Srikant Patnaik, Mr. Biswajit Paul, Mrs. Bijita
Biswas, Ms. Sanjukta Pal, Ms. Alakananda Bhattacharya and Ms. Parbati
Saha. The contributions of Mr. Patnaik in chapter 24, Mr. Paul in chapter 14,
Ms. Biswas in chapter 23, Ms. Pal in chapter 16, Ms. Bhattacharya in chapter
22 and Ms. Saha in chapter 10 need special mention. Among his scholars, the
author wants to convey his special thanks to Mr. Patnaik, who helped him in
many ways, which simply cannot be expressed in a few sentences.
The author acknowledges the contribution of his friend Mr. Dipak Laha,
a faculty member of the Mechanical Engineering department, Jadavpur
University, who helped him in understanding the many difficult problems of
scheduling. He also would like to thank his friend Dr. Uday Kumar
Chakraborty, a faculty member of the Computer Science department,
Jadavpur University, for teaching him the fundamentals in Genetic
Algorithms. The author gives a special thanks to Ms. Sheli Murmu, his
student and now a colleague, who helped him in correcting many syntactical
errors in the draft book. He also wants to thank his graduate students
including Mr. Diptendu Bhattacharya, Ms. Bandana Barmn, and Mr.
Srikrishna Bhattacharya for their help in drawing many figures and in the
technical editing of this book. The author also wishes to thank his ex-student
Ms. Sragdhara Dutta Choudhury, who helped him draw a very simple but
beautiful sketch of the ‘classroom’ figure in chapter 6.
The architectural issues of knowledge based systems, which is the main
theme of chapter 22, is the summary of the M.E. thesis (1991-1992) of Mr.
Shirshendu Halder, who critically reviewed a large number of research papers
and interestingly presented the pros and cons of these works in his thesis.
The author owes a deep gratitude to Prof. A. K. Mandal of the
department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering, Jadavpur
University, for teaching him the subject of AI and providing him both
technical and moral support as a teacher, Ph.D. thesis adviser and colleague.
He is also indebted to Prof. A.K. Nath of the same department for
encouraging him to write a book and spending long hours in valuable
discussion. The author would like to thank his teacher Prof. A. B. Roy of the
department of Mathematics, Jadavpur University, who inspired his writing
skill, which later enabled him to write this book. He remembers his one-time
project supervisor Prof. T. K. Ghosal of the Department of Electrical
Engineering, Jadavpur University, for his constructive criticism, which helped
him develop a habit of checking a thought twice before deliberating. The
author also gratefully acknowledges his unaccountable debt to his teacher Mr.
Basudeb Dey, who taught him the basis to uncover the mysteries from the
statement of arithmetic problems, without which the author could never have
been able to reach his present level of maturity in mathematics.
The author wants to convey a special vote of thanks to his colleagues
Prof. S. K. Choudhury and Dr. B. Gupta for their kind gesture of attending his
classes on AI for a complete semester, which helped him to make necessary
corrections in the book.
Among his friends and well-wishers, the author would like to mention
Mr. Gourishankar Chattopadhyay, Mr. Bisweswar Jana, Mrs. Dipa Gupta,
Mr. P. K. Gupta and Prof. P.K. Sinha Roy, without whose encouragement and
inspiration the book could not have taken its present shape. His ex-students
Ms. Sanghamitra Sinha of Sun Microsystems, USA, Ms. Indrani Chakraborty
of MIE University, Japan, Mr. Ashim Biswas of HCL Technologies, NOIDA,
India and Dr. Madhumita Dasgupta of Jadavpur University, India helped him
in many ways improve the book.
The author would like to thank Ms. Nora Konopka, Acquisition Editor, and
staff members of CRC Press LLC for their kind cooperation in connection
with writing this book. He would also like to thank Prof. L. C. Jain of the
University of South Australia, Adelaide, for active cooperation and editorial
guidance on this book.
Lastly, the author wishes to express his deep gratitude to his parents, who
always stood by him throughout his life and guided him in his time of crisis.
He also wishes to thank his wife Srilekha for her tolerance of his indifference
to the family life and her assistance in many ways for the successful
completion of the book. The author is equally grateful to his in-laws and
especially his brother-in-law, Mr. Subrata Samanta, for their inspiration and
encouragement in writing this book.
September 17, 1999
Jadavpur University Amit Konar
To my parents, Mr. Sailen Konar and Mrs. Minati Konar, who
brought me up despite the stress and complexities of their lives
and devoted themselves to my education;
To my brother Sanjoy, who since his childhood shouldered
the responsibility of running our family smoothly;
To my wife Srilekha, who helped me survive and inspired me
in many ways to write and complete this book in the present
form;
To my students in various parts of the world, who through
their forbearance allowed me to improve my teaching skills;
To my teachers, who taught me the art of reacting to a
changing environment; and
To millions of the poor and down-trodden people of my
country and the world, whose sacrifice and tolerance paved
the royal road of my education,, and whose love and emotion,
smile and tears inspired me to speak their thoughts in my
words.
Amit Konar
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction to Artificial Intelligence and
Soft Computing
1.1 Evolution of Computing
1.2 Defining AI
1.3 General Problem Solving Approaches in AI
1.4 The Disciplines of AI
1.4.1 The Subject of AI
Learning Systems
Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
Planning
Knowledge Acquisition
Intelligent Search
Logic Programming
Soft Computing
Fuzzy Logic
Artificial Neural Nets
Genetic Algorithms
Management of Imprecision and Uncertainty
1.4.2 Applications of AI Techniques
Expert Systems
Image Understanding and Computer Vision
Navigational Planning for Mobile Robots
Speech and Natural Language Understanding
Scheduling
Intelligent Control
1.5 A Brief History of AI
1.5.1 The Classical Period
1.5.2 The Romantic Period
1.5.3 The Modern Period
1.6 Characteristic Requirement for the Realization of Intelligent Systems
1.6.1 Symbolic and Numeric Computation on Common Platform
1.6.2 Non-Deterministic Computation
1.6.3 Distributed Computing
1.6.4 Open System
1.7 Programming Languages for AI
1.8 Architecture for AI Machines
1.9 Objective and Scope of the Book
1.10 Summary
Exercises
References
Chapter 2: The Psychological Perspective of
Cognition
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Cognitive Perspective of Pattern Recognition
2.2.1 Template- Matching Theory
2.2.2 Prototype-Matching Theory
2.2.3 Feature-based Approach for Pattern Recognition
2.2.4 The Computational Approach
2.3 Cognitive Models of Memory
2.3.1 The Atkinson-Shiffrin’s Model
2.3.2 Debates on the Atkinson-Shiffrin’s Model
2.3.3 Tulving’s Model
2.3.4 The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach
2.4 Mental Imagery
2.4.1 Mental Representation of Imagery
2.4.2 Rotation of Mental Imagery
2.4.3 Imagery and Size
Kosslyn’s View
Moyer’s View
Peterson’s View
2.4.4 Imagery and Their Shape
2.4.5 Part-whole Relationship in Mental Imagery
2.4.6 Ambiguity in Mental Imagery
2.4.7 Neuro Physiological Similarity between
Imagery and Perception
2.4.8 Cognitive Maps of Mental Imagery
2.5 Understanding a Problem
2.5.1 Steps in Understanding a Problem
2.6 A Cybernetic View to Cognition
2.6.1 The States of Cognition
2.7 Scope of Realization of Cognition in Artificial Intelligence
2.8 Summary
Exercises
References
Chapter 3: Production Systems
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Production Rules
3.3 The Working Memory
3.4 The Control Unit / Interpreter
3.5 Conflict Resolution Strategies
3.6 An Alternative Approach for Conflict Resolution
3.7 An Illustrative Production System
3.8 The RETE Match Algorithm
3.9 Types of Production Systems
3.9.1 Commutative Production System
3.9.2 Decomposable Production System
3.10 Forward versus Backward Production Systems
3.11 General Merits of a Production System
3.11.1 Isolation of Knowledge and Control Strategy
3.11.2 A Direct Mapping onto State-space
3.11.3 Modular Structure of Production Rules
3.11.4 Tracing of Explanation
3.12 Knowledge Base Optimization in a Production System
3.13 Conclusions
Exercises
References
Chapter 4: Problem Solving by Intelligent Search
4.1 Introduction
4.2 General Problem Solving Approaches
4.2.1 Breadth First Search
4.2.2 Depth First Search
4.2.3 Iterative Deepening Search
4.2.4 Hill Climbing
4.2.5 Simulated Annealing
4.3 Heuristic Search
4.3.1 Heuristic Search for OR Graphs
4.3.2 Iterative Deepening A* Algorithm
4.3.3 Heuristic Search on AND-OR Graphs
4.4 Adversary Search
4.4.1 The MINIMAX Algorithm
4.4.2 The Alpha-Beta Cutoff Procedure
4.5 Conclusions
Exercises
References
Chapter 5: The Logic of Propositions and Predicates
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Formal Definitions
5.3 Tautologies in Propositional Logic
5.4 Theorem Proving by Propositional Logic
5.4.1 Semantic Method for Theorem Proving
5.4.2 Syntactic Methods for Theorem Proving
5.4.2.1 Method of Substitution
5.4.2.2 Theorem Proving by Using Wang’s Algorithm
5.5 Resolution in Propositional Logic
5.6 Soundness and Completeness of Propositional Logic
5.7 Predicate Logic
5.8 Writing a Sentence into Clause Forms
5.9 Unification of Predicates
5.10 Robinson’s Inference Rule
5.10.1 Theorem Proving in FOL with Resolution Principle
5.11 Different Types of Resolution
5.11.1 Unit Resulting Resolution
5.11.2 Linear Resolution
5.11.3 Double Resolution: A Common Mistake
5.12 Semi-decidability
5.13 Soundness and Completeness of Predicate Logic
5.14 Conclusions
Exercises
References
Chapter 6: Principles in Logic Programming
6.1 Introduction to PROLOG Programming
6.2 Logic Programs - A Formal Definition
6.3 A Scene Interpretation Program
6.4 Illustrating Backtracking by Flow of Satisfaction Diagrams
6.5 The SLD Resolution
6.6 Controlling Backtracking by CUT
6.6.1 Risk of Using CUT
6.6.2 CUT with FAIL Predicate
6.7 The NOT Predicate
6.8 Negation as a Failure in Extended Logic Programs
6.9 Fixed Points in Non-Horn Clause Based Programs
6.10 Constraint Logic Programming
6.11 Conclusions
Exercises
References
Chapter 7: Default and Non-Monotonic Reasoning
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Monotonic versus Non-Monotonic Logic
7.3 Non-Monotonic Reasoning Using NML I
7.4 Fixed Points in Non-Monotonic Reasoning
7.5 Non-Monotonic Reasoning Using NML II
7.6 Truth Maintenance Systems
7.7 Default Reasoning
Types of Default Theories
Stability of Default Theory
7.8 The Closed World Assumption
7.9 Circumscription
7.10 Auto-epistemic Logic
7.11 Conclusions
Exercises
References
Chapter 8: Structured Approach to Knowledge
Representation
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Semantic Nets
8.3 Inheritance in Semantic Nets
8.4 Manipulating Monotonic and Default Inheritance in Semantic Nets
8.5 Defeasible Reasoning in Semantic Nets
8.6 Frames
8.7 Inheritance in Tangled Frames
8.8 Petri Nets
8.9 Conceptual Dependency
8.10 Scripts
8.11 Conclusions
Exercises
References
Chapter 9: Dealing with Imprecision and Uncertainty
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Probabilistic Reasoning
9.2.1 Bayesian Reasoning
9.2.2 Pearl’s Scheme for Evidential Reasoning
9.2.3 Pearl’s Belief Propagation Scheme on a Polytree
9.2.4 Dempster-Shafer Theory for Uncertainty Management
9.3 Certainty Factor Based Reasoning
9.4 Fuzzy Reasoning
9.4.1 Fuzzy Sets
9.4.2 Fuzzy Relations
9.4.3 Continuous Fuzzy Relational Systems
9.4.4 Realization of Fuzzy Inference Engine on VLSI Architecture
9.5 Comparison of the Proposed Models
Exercises
References
Chapter 10: Structured Approach to Fuzzy Reasoning
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Structural Model of FPN and Reachability Analysis
10.2.1 Formation of FPN
10.2.2 Reachability Analysis and Cycle Identification
10.3 Behavioral Model of FPN and Stability Analysis
10.3.1 The Behavioral Model of FPN
10.3.2 State Space Formulation of the Model
10.3.3 Special Cases of the Model
10.3.4 Stability Analysis
10.4 Forward Reasoning in FPN
10.5 Backward Reasoning in FPN
10.6 Bi-directional IFF Type Reasoning and Reciprocity
10.7 Fuzzy Modus Tollens and Duality
10.8 Non-monotonic Reasoning in a FPN
10.9 Conclusions
Exercises
References
Chapter 11: Reasoning with Space and Time
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Spatial Reasoning
11.3 Spatial Relationships among Components of an Object
11.4 Fuzzy Spatial Relationships among Objects
11.5 Temporal Reasoning by Situation Calculus
11.5.1 Knowledge Representation and Reasoning in
Situation Calculus
11.5.2 The Frame Problem
11.5.3 The Qualification Problem
11.6 Propositional Temporal Logic
11.6.1 State Transition Diagram for PTL Interpretation
11.6.2 The ‘Next-Time’ Operator
11.6.3 Some Elementary Proofs in PTL
11.7 Interval Temporal Logic
11.8 Reasoning with Both Space and Time
11.9 Conclusions
Exercises
References
Chapter 12: Intelligent Planning
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Planning with If-Add-Delete Operators
12.2.1 Planning by Backward Reasoning
12.2.2 Threatening of States
12.3 Least Commitment Planning
12.3.1 Operator Sequence in Partially Ordered Plans
12.3.2 Realizing Least Commitment Plans
12.4 Hierarchical Task Network Planning
12.5 Multi-agent Planning
12.6 The Flowshop Scheduling Problem
12.6.1 The R-C Heuristics
12.7 Summary
Exercises
References
Chapter 13: Machine Learning Techniques
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Supervised Learning
13.2.1 Inductive Learning
13.2.1.1 Learning by Version Space
The Candidate Elimination Algorithm
The LEX System
13.2.1.2 Learning by Decision Tree
13.2.2 Analogical Learning
13.3 Unsupervised Learning
13.4 Reinforcement Learning
13.4.1 Learning Automata
13.4.2 Adaptive Dynamic programming
13.4.3 Temporal Difference Learning
13.4.4 Active Learning
13.4.5 Q-Learning
13.5 Learning by Inductive Logic Programming
13.6 Computational Learning Theory
13.7 Summary
Exercises
References
Chapter 14: Machine Learning Using Neural Nets
14.1 Biological Neural Nets
14.2 Artificial Neural Nets
14.3 Topology of Artificial Neural Nets
14.4 Learning Using Neural Nets
14.4.1 Supervised Learning
14.4.2 Unsupervised Learning
14.4.3 Reinforcement Learning
14.5 The Back-propagation Training Algorithm
14.6 Widrow-Hoff’s Multi-layered ADALINE Models
14.7 Hopfield Neural Net
Binary Hopfield Net
Continuous Hopfield Net
14.8 Associative Memory
14.9 Fuzzy Neural Nets
14.10 Self-Organizing Neural Net
14.11 Adaptive Resonance Theory (ART)
14.12 Applications of Artificial Neural Nets
Exercises
References
Chapter 15: Genetic Algorithms
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Deterministic Explanation of Holland’s Observation
15.3 Stochastic Explanation of GA
The Fundamental Theorem of Genetic Algorithms
15.4 The Markov Model for Convergence Analysis
15.5 Application of GA in Optimization Problems
15.6 Application of GA in Machine Learning
15.6.1 GA as an Alternative to Back-propagation Learning
15.6.2 Adaptation of the Learning Rule / Control Law by GA
15.7 Applications of GA in Intelligent Search
15.7.1 Navigational Planning for Robots
15.8 Genetic Programming
15.9 Conclusions
Exercises
References
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