Human Resource Management -Diploma in Business Administration Study Manual
Human Resource Management is about the managerial and leadership processes which enable people to give of their best in today’s turbulent working scenarios. To that end, the syllabus content is less concerned with the academic study of human and organisational behaviour, but concentrates more on the development of effective, pragmatic, yet innovative solutions to the issues surrounding the need to maximise people’s productivity, efficiency and effectiveness.
Diploma in Business Administration Study Manual Human Resource Management The Association of Business Executives William House • 14 Worple Road • Wimbledon • London • SW19 4DD • United Kingdom Tel: + 44(0)20 8879 1973 • Fax: + 44(0)20 8946 7153 E-mail: [email protected] • www.abeuk.com © Copyright RRC Business Training © Copyright under licence to ABE from RRC Business Training abc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, electrostatic, mechanical, photocopied or otherwise, without the express permission in writing from The Association of Business Executives. ABE Diploma in Business Administration Study Manual Human Resource Management Contents Study Title Page Unit Syllabus i 1 Management and Leadership 1 What is Management? 2 Leadership in the Context of Management 11 Action-Centred Leadership 14 Leadership Styles 17 Contingency Theories of Leadership 20 2 Management Accountability and Responsibility 25 The Breadth of Accountability 26 Management and Social Responsibility 32 Equal Opportunities 36 The Ethics of Managers 44 3 Management and the Changing Organisation 51 Organisational Culture 53 The Learning Organisation 58 The Culture of Quality 60 The Culture of Enterprise 62 Business Process Re-Engineering 63 The Impact of Globalisation 66 Current Trends in Organisations 69 4 Management and Motivation 77 What is Motivation? 78 People at Work 78 Needs Theories of Motivation 85 Models of Behaviour and Motivation 89 Process Theories of Motivation 92 Excellence Theory and Motivation 95 5 Organising and Motivating 97 Delegation 99 Empowerment 105 Centralisation/Decentralisation 110 Gaining Commitment to Organisational Objectives 116 Jobs 120 Rewards 125 6 Management Control 133 The Basic Elements of the Control Process 135 Setting Standards 136 Measuring and Comparing Performance 138 Tackling Deviations from Standard 140 Control Systems 144 Human Behaviour and Control Systems 147 Performance Management 150 Disciplinary and Grievance Procedures 153 7 Managing and Enhancing Performance 159 Performance Appraisal Systems 161 The Appraisal Process 165 Management by Objectives 170 The Manager as Facilitator 176 Coaching 179 Counselling 181 Mentoring 183 Dealing with Problem Performers 184 8 Human Resource Planning 187 What is Human Resource Planning? 188 The Process of Human Resource Planning 189 Trends in Employment 195 Changing Patterns of Work 198 9 Recruitment and Selection 205 The Recruitment and Selection Process 206 Defining the Vacancy 207 Casting the Net 215 Selection Procedures 220 Employee Induction 229 10 Employee Development 233 Organisations, Individuals and Development 234 Identifying Training and Development Needs 239 The Learning Process 241 Training Methods 248 11 Communication 253 Communication in Organisations 254 The Communication Process 261 Methods of Communication 265 Effective Communication 269 Working in Committees 279 i Diploma in Business Administration – Part 2 Human Resource Management Syllabus Introduction It is a truism to claim that people are an organisational resource – indeed for some organisations, they are the key resource, without which the organisation would be unable to deliver any meaningful product or service to its customers. Like any resource, however, people may be used wastefully: they may be employed at well below their potential, performing tasks which do not stretch their capabilities and which are ultimately alienating in their psychological impact on the employees involved. Alternatively, people may be managed and led in ways which inspire them to be highly motivated and to demonstrate long-term commitment to both their roles and the organisation which employs them. When this is achieved, the performance of its people becomes a major differentiator for the organisation and a source of long-term competitive strength. Human Resource Management is about the managerial and leadership processes which enable people to give of their best in today’s turbulent working scenarios. To that end, the syllabus content is less concerned with the academic study of human and organisational behaviour, but concentrates more on the development of effective, pragmatic, yet innovative solutions to the issues surrounding the need to maximise people’s productivity, efficiency and effectiveness. Aims Again this conceptual background, the aims for the module are as follows: To develop the student’s knowledge and understanding of: 1. Individual differences, especially in such fields as learning, personality, motivation and attitudes, with particular reference to the relevance of such differences for recruitment, selection, deployment, development, and employee performance in an organisational setting. 2. The changing nature of the “psychological contact” between organisations and their employees, together with the implications for employability, flexible working, commitment, and managerial leadership. 3. Each major dimension of human resource management in practice, i. e. human resource planning, recruitment, selection, induction, training/development, reward systems, and people review/appraisal. 4. Techniques for effective communication in all work-related situations, i. e. with subordinates, with seniors, through collective representational procedures, and with teams. Programme Content and Learning Objectives Note that all the following objectives are concerned principally with practical application rather than academic theory. Students will be expected to familiarise themselves with all relevant underpinning theories, but the emphasis in the tuition process and in the examination will and should concentrate on specific techniques for resolving human resource issues and for improving people performance across all types of organisation. © Copyright ABE ii After completing the programme, the student should be able to: 1. Differentiate the fundamental characteristics of people, with particular regard to such factors as culture, gender, ethnicity, personality, attitudes, and motivation, and assess the implications of such differences for the purposes of effective human resource management. 2. Clarify the mechanisms for individual and organisational learning, including ways of enhancing the effectiveness of deliberate learning processes and of overcoming the barriers to productive learning, again with a focus on the significance of learning from the viewpoint of enhancing organisational effectiveness. 3. Recognise the significance of the emergent “psychological contract” in terms of new employer expectations about “added value”, employability, and the factors which will continue to influence the nature of employment in the vast majority of organisations. 4. Apply alternative systems of flexible working to meet fluctuating corporate needs. 5. Accept the obligations of ethicality in governing the actions of managers, employees, and corporate entities. 6. Acknowledge the differences between “management” and “leadership” against a background in which organisations are moving from a focus on compliance to a desire for commitment, and recommend the installation of appropriate mechanisms for generating employee commitment in all types of corporate setting. 7. Maximise individual and collective employee performance, in specific organisational, functional, departmental or managerial scenarios, through effective motivation, job design, reward/recognition processes, and “performance management”. 8. Handle difficult people-management situations through systematic grievance-handling mechanisms, directive or non-directive counselling, coaching, and ultimately by means of disciplinary action and dismissal. 9. Apply each of the procedures and skills associated with the major arenas for personnel management, viz., human resource planning, recruitment, selection, induction, training/development, reward/recognition, review/appraisal, employee relations, welfare, health and safety responsibilities, discipline, and grievance-handling, in both remedial and continuous- improvement circumstances. [Several of these themes are mentioned elsewhere in the syllabus, but are repeated here in order to ensure completeness.] 10. Communicate effectively in all relevant organisational situations, i.e., meetings, presentations, and negotiating. Method of Assessment By written examination. The pass mark is 40%. Time allowed 3 hours. The question paper will contain: Eight questions from which the candidate will be required to answer any four. All questions carry 25 marks. © Copyright ABE iii Recommended Reading Lead text ! Torrington, D. and Hall, L. (1998), Human Resource Management; 4th edition, Prentice-Hall Other recommended texts ! Armstrong, M. (1998), Managing People: A Practical Guide; Kogan Page ! White, A. (1998), The Essential Guide to Developing Your Staff; Piatkus ! Herriot, P., Hirsch, W. and Riley, P. (1998), Trust and Transition: Managing Today’s Employment Relationship; Wiley ! Goss, D. (1994), Principles of Human Resource Management; Routledge ! Cushway, B. (1994), Human Resource Management; Kogan Page Students should also read suitable quality newspapers and periodicals for articles about human resource management (covering new techniques or applications in named companies), and if possible should download up-to-date thinking via suitable search engines on the Internet. © Copyright ABE iv © Copyright ABE 1 Study Unit 1 Management and Leadership Contents Page A. What is Management? 2 Towards a Definition 2 Do Organisations need Management? 4 Management Processes 4 Management Roles 6 Management Activities 7 B. Leadership in the Context of Management 11 What is a Leader? 11 Formal and Informal Leaders 11 Power and Leadership 12 Leadership Qualities 13 C. Action-Centred Leadership 14 D. Leadership Styles 17 A Continuum of Leadership Styles 17 People v Production Orientation 18 Reddin’s 3D Theory 19 Likert’s Employee-Centred Supervision 20 E. Contingency Theories of Leadership 20 Fiedler's Contingency Model 20 Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model 21 Handy’s Contingency Model 22 © Licensed to ABE 2 Management and Leadership A. WHAT IS MANAGEMENT? “Management” is one of those words which we all use and which we think we understand until we are asked exactly what it means. At its most general, management may be viewed as a process which enables organisations to achieve their objectives. The inclusion of the word “process” tells us that something is going on. Thus, the question “what is management?” is, perhaps, best turned into “what do managers do?”. Towards a Definition There are almost as many definitions of management as there are writers about the subject – and that is a lot! We shall start here by briefly considering a number which illustrate the range of possible views of the subject. ! H Fayol An early classic definition was put forward by Fayol: “To manage is to forecast and plan, to organise, to command (we would now term this “to direct”), to coordinate and to control.” Fayol stresses the authoritative role of management – he does not mention motivation or any special qualities of leadership. ! Making Resources Productive – Peter Drucker Peter Drucker, probably the most widely read present-day writer on general management, in his book “The Practice of Management” wrote: “Management is the organ of society specifically charged with making resources productive.” This is a wide-ranging claim, firmly pinning the need for a sense of social responsibility on managers. It is their task, according to this view, to take the resources available to society and make something better from them – to utilise staff and other resources in such a way that more will become available to all. In a real sense, he is claiming that the manager’s raison d’être is to make a better life for society. He also points out an analogy with the animal world (“Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices”). He compares a business operated by an owner-entrepreneur with “helpers”, with an insect which is held together by a tough, hard skin. A business with managers is likened to a vertebrate animal with a skeleton. Land animals supported by a hard skin cannot grow beyond a few inches; to be larger, animals must have a skeleton. So, the need for management is associated with size. But as the skeleton has not evolved from the hard skin of the insect, so management is not a successor to the owner-entrepreneur – it is its replacement. When considering at which point the size of an organisation demands management, Drucker suggests that the need usually occurs when the number of employees reaches between 300 and 1,000. There are, of course, exceptions to this rule and he quotes the case of a laboratory employing 20 scientists where, by the complexity of operations, the enterprise started to flounder without a management structure. © Licensed to ABE Management and Leadership 3 ! Artistic and Scientific Aspects – John Marsh John Marsh, a former director of the British Institute of Management (now the Institute of Management), was claiming much the same thing when he said: “Management is an art and a science concerned with the proper, systematic and profitable use of resources in all sections of a nation’s economy”. The use of resources to make a vast profit for an individual would not be a “proper” use. Marsh raises an interesting point by his use of the words “an art and a science”. Although many management techniques are “scientific” in the sense that they depend on quantification and objectivity, and much of management writing and research is scientific in that it depends on controlled experiments and measurement, there is still much of the art left. There are still many fields, and some might say they are the most important fields, where hunch, flair and intuition play a major part. This is why it is not possible to teach an individual to be a manager; he/she can only be helped to develop – to build on the potential that he/she has. In other words, you can teach people to manage better, but you cannot give them a basic managerial ability if they have not already got it. ! Deciding and Delegating – R Falk, Rosemary Stewart A simpler, perhaps more practical definition, which has been accepted by most practising managers, is given by R Falk in his book “The Business of Management”. He defined management simply as: “Getting things done through people”. Here he is stressing the importance of people-management at the same time as stressing the difference between “doing” and “managing”. The technical content of a job is not managerial. For example, when the maintenance manager actually repairs a machine, he is not being a manager. Rosemary Stewart in “Reality of Management” adds a further dimension to this definition when she says management is: “Deciding what should be done, and then getting other people to do it”. As we shall see later, the decision-making facet of managerial life is one of the most important. Indeed, many writers feel that it is the most fundamental part of the manager’s task. ! Establishing an Environment Conducive to Work – Koontz and O’Donnell There is a more sophisticated approach to the question, though, which offers an important insight into the manager’s role. This approach is typified by Koontz and O’Donnell, who say in “Principles of Management” that management is: “The accomplishment of desired objectives by establishing an environment favourable to performance by people operating in organised groups”. This is an important idea in that it suggests that management’s main objective is not to give orders and chase people about, but rather to create and maintain a work situation which is conducive to work. They do not, of course, simply mean the physical setting for the work and the provision of good working methods. They are concerned with providing the right motivational climate. In a very real sense, the manager is not only the boss, but also the servant of his employees. A large part of his job is to arrange the work to suit the needs of his employees. © Licensed to ABE 4 Management and Leadership ! Need to Relate to the Environment – Kast and Rosenweig The word “environment” is used in another sense by two other writers, Kast and Rosenweig, in their book “The Management of Systems”. They see the firm as a system which exists within larger systems (its environment) and which must adjust to those larger systems in order to survive and grow. Their definition, then, is: “Management involves the coordination of human and material resources towards objective accomplishment. It is the primary force within organisations which coordinates the activities of the subsystems, and relates them to their environment”. Again, we see the stress on employment of resources and on objectives, but this definition tends to look outwards as well as inwards. It recognises that part of the management function within an organisation is to ensure that the organisation relates to what the environment demands. The authors developed their theories of organisations and management practices based on the general systems theory, which links the relevant disciplines from science, technology, sociology, etc. for the analysis of complex problems. A holistic rather than reductionist perspective is adopted. Do Organisations need Management? Many workers in firms and organisations express doubts as to whether they need managers, or at least whether they need the degree of management to which they are subjected. A frequently heard lament is “too many chiefs and not enough indians”. Certainly, there are examples of “over-management. However, as the management experts Koontz, et al put it: “Management is essential in all co-operation, as well as at all levels of organisation in an enterprise”. Only management can create the conditions under which an organisation can achieve its goals – an organisation without management is like a rudderless ship. However, we must go beyond the need for management and point to the fact that management must be of an appropriate extent and quality for a given organisation. To pursue our ship analogy – it is little use having a captain who steers the ship onto the rocks. Management Processes The above statements, being extracted from large works, tend to present a limited definition of management, e.g. “getting things done through people” or “using resources to generate profits”. These may be correct as far as they go, but they are single-dimension and do not explain the full range of functions which managers perform within organisations. We need to develop an understanding of all these. Perhaps one of the better efforts at providing an all-embracing definition of management is that given by E F L Brech: “Management is a social process entailing responsibility for effective planning and regulation of the operations of an enterprise in fulfilment of a given purpose”. Many management theorists have found it useful to group key management processes under four main headings: planning, organising, directing and control. These functions may be seen as interrelated as follows: © Licensed to ABE Management and Leadership 5 Sensor Inputs Plan Organise Direct Control Outputs Feedback Figure 1.1: The Management Loop The model shows management activities as a sequence: where plans become implemented and where controls monitor progress and feed back results. However, in a real work situation, a manager may be planning some things while organising, directing and controlling others. Let us look at these management processes in greater detail. (a) Planning Planning is the process by which the organisation, or any particular part of it, determines what is to be done. It is the process of systematic thought that precedes action, during which resources in hand, or those likely to be available, are matched against known or predicted conditions in order to achieve organisational goals. It involves a number of related processes: ! forecasting - analysing known information (within and external to the organisation) in order to predict future conditions; ! goal setting - the determination, in the light of forecasts and other imperatives (including policy), of what the organisation wishes to achieve in the relevant time span; ! decision making - making choices between different goals and courses of action, including the identification and resolution of problems, conflicts and priorities. One of the keys to this process is an understanding of where the organisation is coming from and what the future may be like. This requires information - about how the organisation is performing now (and this in turn derives from the monitoring and review elements of the control process - see below) and what the future holds. We shall see that information and its distribution and availability, in various forms, flows through the whole of the management process. Another key conditioning element is the scope for decision making in the determination of goals. It is invariably the case that management does not have a free hand in setting goals. There are policy and other organisational imperatives (what can be expected of staff, the available technology or accommodation, competing priorities, etc.) which constrain the process. (b) Organising and directing Organising is the management process which actually arranges for the work to be done. It is concerned with the allocation of resources - both staff and others (finance, materials, time, etc.) - and their arrangement into working units and relationships, such that the agreed plans may be carried out and achieved. Directing arises out of organising, being about ensuring that employees are appropriately engaged in working on activities to meet goals and plans. This involves motivating and supervising staff towards the concerted efforts needed for effective performance. © Licensed to ABE 6 Management and Leadership The two elements are grouped together here because they combine in their effect on people. Organising involves both the division of the work into logical tasks and its allocation to staff, and the structural arrangement of staff into groups and organisational relationships. This point about organisational relationships is important. It implies that management is not just about the setting up of structures, but also the way they continue to operate - ensuring harmony in staff relationships, that staff are working appropriately, etc. There is a necessary overlap with the directing process here in respect of influencing relationships and monitoring their effect on performance, and also with the role of the personnel or human resource management function. Again it is worth noting the importance of the role of information and communication in the organising and directing elements of the management function. These involve not only the establishment of structures, but their on-going operation - working with people and ensuring their continuing understanding and commitment to organisational goals and the activities necessary for their achievement. This must require a level of communication to establish and maintain such conditions, and to ensure appropriate co-ordination of effort, particularly in times of rapid change such as we have experienced over recent years. (c) Controlling Management control is the process of monitoring and regulating performance to ensure that it conforms to the plans and goals of the organisation. This is not just some element added on to the end of the management process, but an integral part of it - control starts from the moment plans are put into action. It involves continuous monitoring and review of the way in which goals are being met through performance of the designated activities. A well expressed goal should include measurable targets or standards, together with a timescale for its achievement. These are the indices which, in an ideal world, performance is measured against - are the standards or targets being achieved, how well is progress being made towards the desired end? Control also involves taking the appropriate corrective action to ensure that what is actually happening is in accordance with the expectations of the planning process. This does not necessarily involve cracking down on staff who are not performing to the expected standards! It may, but it may also mean reviewing the plans and amending them where it can be demonstrated that they were defective in some way or that conditions have changed. Again, the process is heavily dependent upon information. Management information is crucial to assessing the level of achievement - financial reports, output totals, qualitative progress reports, etc. are the raw material of performance review. The results of this also feed back into the planning process as part of a on-going cycle in determining the next round of goals and plans (or even the review and amendment of the current ones). Management Roles One of the classic studies into the work of managers was conducted by the American Henry Mintzburg in 1980. His analysis of the masses of detailed notes on exactly how managers spent their time resulted in his developing a typology of management roles which provides a slightly different overview of what management involves from the functional approach. Mintzburg identified three general roles: ! interpersonal - dealing with the maintenance of relationships with others within and outside the organisation; © Licensed to ABE Management and Leadership 7 ! informational - dealing with the gathering and provision of information, again within and outside the organisation; ! decisional - dealing with organisational and operational problems and difficulties. Within these three categories, ten more specific roles were set out, as summarised in the Table below. Role Description Interpersonal Figurehead Formal, representational and symbolic duties Leader Relationship with subordinates - motivating, communicating, coaching, etc. Liaison Contacts with others outside work unit, for assistance, information, etc. Informational Monitor Ensuring acquisition of information necessary for work Disseminator Distributing information throughout organisation and outside Spokesperson Formal provision of information on behalf of organisation Decisional Entrepreneur Initiating, developing and facilitating change and innovation Disturbance Trouble shooting problems as and when they arise handler Resource allocator Distributing and arranging use of resources (staff, finance, materials, time) Negotiator Representing organisation in negotiations within area of responsibility Whilst this categorisation of roles is different from the functional definitions we have considered above, it does not clash with them. Rather, Mintzburg’s roles provide an alternative perspective, emphasising three key elements which spread across the spectrum of management processes - planning, organising and controlling. Management Activities Another approach to explaining management is to look at the various activities carried out by managers and attempt to classify them in some way. The traditional approach to this is to break down the main functions into their component parts, and Mullins provides an interesting framework for reviewing this, drawing the activities together and stressing their interdependence. We can summarise the activities as follows and it is easy to see how these link with the processes of planning, organising, directing and controlling.. (a) Determining objectives All managerial work involves identification of goals or objectives - deciding what it is one is seeking to achieve. Without this, work can become unfocused and, whilst a particular course of action may deal with the immediate problem, it may create others later because it has not focused on the real purpose. (A good example is in the need to provide information about a particular service. An ill-considered response to a need to supply details about some aspect of, say, housing may obscure what it is one is trying to achieve through the distribution of a well © Licensed to ABE 8 Management and Leadership thought-out information leaflet. There are any number of inappropriate brochures about services which do not adequately tell people what they want to know and raise more questions than they answer.) (b) Defining the problems that need to be solved to achieve the objectives Having decided what it is one is seeking to achieve, the next step is to consider what problems must be overcome in doing it. It is easy to see the problems inherent in, say, resolving a problem of heavy traffic through a small rural village - difficulties of road widening, acquiring the land for a new road, dealing with dissenters, coping with the disruption of construction, etc. However, similar problems invariably occur in considering more mundane objectives - for example, just getting the morning’s post delivered to desks by 10.30am may raise issues of how the post is handled, the number of messengers employed (and what they will do for the rest of the day), etc. There are rarely issues which do not give rise to some sort of problem in their solution. (c) Searching for solutions to the problems which have been specified There is rarely just one solution to a problem, nor should management be about just picking one and living with it. The optimum method should be to generate a number of different ways of resolving the problems - road widening, new road construction, building a tunnel, etc. or decentralising post handling, expanding the work of the central post section, etc. There are obvious limits to how far management can go in searching for alternatives (particularly in terms of the time/cost implications), but having a range to evaluate will certainly help to clarify the “best” solution and probably assist in its acceptance. (d) Determining the best solutions to the problems This can be the most difficult activity. On the face of it, it is simply a matter of identifying effective solutions (ones that actually resolve the problems ) and then choosing the most efficient one. However, life is rarely that easy! In reality, there will have to be some compromise between effectiveness and efficiency (usually cost efficiency, but other constraints may also apply, such as political imperatives or availability of staff). (e) Securing agreement on implementation It may be thought that this is relatively straightforward, given that a systematic appraisal of alternatives has resulted in the “best” available solution being selected. However, others have invariably to be convinced of that as well - committees who have to agree and allocate the necessary funds, staff (and their representatives) who will be involved in the consequent changes, outside interests including government officials and sometimes ministers, dissenting groups and, if the issue is of sufficient importance, public opinion as well (through local and national media). (f) Preparation and issue of instructions This should be the easy part, but not necessarily - the activity is relatively simple, it is just that management is usually terrible at carrying it out! This is all about how one communicates decisions and directions about what needs to be done to give effect to them. The scope for misunderstandings, deliberate or misconceived interpretations, errors in distribution, bad timing, etc. is enormous. There is a real premium on the ability to prepare and disseminate clear, unambiguous and relevant information to the right people to the right time. © Licensed to ABE Management and Leadership 9 (g) Execution of agreed solutions We could summarise the action necessary for this activity as being about organising, allocating resources and directing. Organising is the allocation of responsibilities and authority - the establishment of a structure of functions, roles and relationships. This is very much the difficult interface between the organisation’s objectives and its goals - to what extent does the former facilitate or hinder the achievement of the latter, and how easy is it to affect change to ensure compatibility. Allocating resources is about ensuring that the right people are in the right positions at the right time and with the right materials and equipment in order to achieve the desired ends. This must also involve ensuring the appropriate funding is available and that sufficient time has been allocated to enable the work to be done. Finally, directing is the business of appropriately leading, motivating and supervising the work of the members of the organisation. We stress “appropriately” because there is no one simple method of so doing - it will depend on the nature of the work, the nature of the workforce and the nature of the manager him/herself. Inappropriate direction can be counter-productive. (h) Devising and discharge of an auditing process The final management activity is the continuous monitoring and assessment of the extent to which the undertaking is successful. Success must be measured in terms of the achievement of the organisation’s goals as expressed in the chosen solution (remembering that the solution may have been a compromise that cannot be expected to be 100% effective in meeting the goals). The use of the term “audit” here draws a parallel with the process of checking and ensuring the authenticity of financial accounts - something that is well established and, by and large, done extremely well. More general management audits are less well established and less well done! Nevertheless, there is no substitute for a system of reviewing progress and controlling the implementation process. There is a certain logic in considering these activities as a list since they tend to follow one after another in the sequencing of a rational process. However, management is an on-going process, and at any one time will involve activities across the range, often in the same project. It is impossible, in reality, to compartmentalise these activities. In addition, it is important to note the way in which they inter-relate and how one depends on another in order to complete the process. We can show this in diagrammatic form as set out in Figure 1.2. The links shown illustrate some of the key inter-relationships, but by no means all. For example, if the result of the audit process discovers that a correctly implemented solution has not resolved the problem or met the goals, then either a new solution must be found, or the objectives need to be reconsidered and revised. Give some thought to this and come up with some examples of your own about the links and inter-relationships, both as they are shown here and those that are not. © Licensed to ABE 10 Management and Leadership Determine objectives Events Determine problems Seek solutions Decide best alternative Secure agreement Issue instructions Execute work Implement audit Figure 1.2: The inter-relation of management activities © Licensed to ABE
